zhongshujie
4 天以前 20f565e134743664045fc42376ef5acd826acbe3
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<template>
    <div class="chapter" num="3">
        <div class="page-box" page="16">
            <div v-if="showPageList.indexOf(16) > -1">
                <div class="header">
                    <span class="header-right"></span>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <h1 class="firstTitle-l">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</h1>
 
                    <div class="bodyPic"><img class="t80" src="../../assets/images/0023-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" /></div>
                    <p class="center"><span class="bold">素质目标</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)具备严谨认真的学习态度和勇于创新的科学素养。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)具备大医精诚的医者精神。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)具备科普口腔预防保健知识的专业素质,以及提升国民口腔保健的意识。</p>
                    <p class="center">........................</p>
                    <p class="center"><span class="bold">知识目标</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)掌握:牙的组成、分类及功能;牙位记录方法;牙的萌出及乳恒牙更替;牙体解剖的应用名词及解剖标志;乳、恒牙外形及临床应用解剖;乳牙与恒牙的鉴别;牙体解剖形态的生理意义;髓腔各部名称、髓腔的增龄变化,以及乳、恒牙髓腔的特点及应用解剖。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(2)熟悉:牙的演化规律。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)了解:端生牙、侧生牙、槽生牙、多牙列、双牙列的概念;髓腔的病理变化。</p>
                    <p class="center">........................</p>
                    <p class="center"><span class="bold">能力目标</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)能进行一定的牙体雕刻和堆蜡塑形。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)能正确书写乳、恒牙牙位。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)能根据牙体解剖形态知识准确识别乳、恒牙。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)能根据所学的牙体解剖形态知识,初步分析并解释临床应用中的问题,具备一定的临床思维能力。</p>
                    <p class="content">(5)能科普一定的口腔预防保健知识。</p>
                    <div class="bodyPic"><img class="t80" src="../../assets/images/0023-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" /></div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">【案例】</span></p>
                    <p class="content">患者,男性,12岁,学生。</p>
                    <p class="content">主诉:上前牙外伤折断伴疼痛1小时。</p>
                    <p class="content">现病史:患者于1小时前玩耍时不慎摔倒面部着地,上颌中切牙当时即折断、疼痛,牙折裂片未保留。患者无头晕、呕吐,意识正常,步行至我科就诊。</p>
                </div>
                <footer class="footerstyle">006</footer>
            </div>
        </div>
 
 
        <div class="page-box" page="17">
            <div v-if="showPageList.indexOf(17) > -1">
                <div class="header-container">
                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
 
 
                    <p class="content">既往史:既往体健,否认全身系统性疾病,否认传染病史及药物过敏史。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        体格检查:意识清楚,颜面部表情自然、左右对称、比例协调,无关节弹响及张口受限,开口型正常。口内检查如图2-1所示:11牙冠切1/3斜折,松动度Ⅰ度,叩痛(++)。上下牙咬合稳定,无早接触。余牙未见明显异常。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">X线检查:11牙周膜轻度增宽,未见根折影像,余牙未见异常。</p>
                    <p class="content">诊断:11冠折(未露髓)。</p>
                    <p class="content">治疗方案:11复合树脂美学修复(图2-2)。外伤后第1、3、6、12个月定期复查,测试牙髓活力。根据复诊牙髓状况和患者要求进一步制订治疗计划。</p>
                    <div class="image-row">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t90" src="../../assets/images/0023-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;术前口内照</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t90" src="../../assets/images/0023-05.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;术后口内照</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">【问题】</span></p>
                    <p class="content">1.病历中“11”代表哪个牙位?</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        2.临床上对于牙体缺损(如本病例)或龋病的治疗,为了精准模拟天然牙的形态和功能,医生在进行充填或修复治疗时,修复体或充填体外形应满足什么要求?与邻牙接触的部位、接触区的形态、接触的松紧度如何恢复?
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">3.若患者11冠折露髓,临床需要根管治疗+桩核冠修复,根管治疗及桩道预备都需具备一定的牙体髓腔形态知识。请问每一颗乳、恒牙内部的髓腔形态都具有什么特点?</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        4.根管治疗极其复杂,稍有疏忽不慎或对髓腔形态不熟悉,极有可能造成根管遗漏、根管侧穿、器械折断等,易引发医患纠纷。作为一名医学生,如何理解并做到“德技并修”?如何防范医患纠纷?</p>
                    <div class="bodyPic"><img class="t30" src="../../assets/images/0022-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" /></div>
                    <p class="center"><img class="g-pic" src="../../assets/images/0023_04.jpg" alt="" /></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        从外形上,牙体可分为牙冠、牙根和牙颈三部分;从剖面观察,牙体由牙釉质、牙本质、牙骨质、牙髓所组成,牙本质构成牙的主体,其冠部覆盖牙釉质,根部覆盖牙骨质,内容牙髓。乳恒牙的发生、矿化和萌出均具有一定的规律。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        临床牙位记录方法有多种,其中部位记录法采用“十”字符号将上下牙弓划分为四个分区,乳牙用罗马数字表示,恒牙用阿拉伯数字表示。国际牙科联合会系统用两位数字来记录,十位数代表牙列分区,个位数代表牙位。
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div class="footer-container">007</div>
            </div>
        </div>
 
 
 
        <div class="page-box" page="18">
            <div v-if="showPageList.indexOf(18) > -1">
                <div class="header">
                    <div class="header-divider"></div>
                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <p class="content">
                        切牙牙冠唇、舌面呈梯形,唇面切1/3处有2条发育沟,颈1/3处有唇颈嵴。舌面中央有深浅不一的舌面窝,颈1/3处有舌隆突。邻面呈三角形,接触区均位于切1/3处。牙根均为单根、较直,根尖段略偏远中。尖牙牙冠唇、舌面似五边形,唇轴嵴将唇面分为两个斜面,舌轴嵴将舌面分为两个舌窝。邻面呈楔形,颈1/3处最厚,唇颈嵴和舌隆突显著。牙尖均偏近中。牙根粗壮单根,根尖段偏远中。前磨牙牙冠颊面有颊轴嵴,发育沟浅。舌面较圆凸,舌轴嵴不明显。邻面似四边形。<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面有2~3个牙尖,并有窝、点隙、沟分布。上颌第一前磨牙牙根多分叉为两根,下颌多为单根。磨牙<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面一般有4~5个牙尖,发育沟、副沟多。颊面外形高点在颈1/3处,舌面外形高点在中1/3处,邻面接触区均在<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />1/3处。牙根一般分叉为2~3根,且根干粗大。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        乳牙除下颌第一乳磨牙形态特异外,其余乳牙均与相应的恒牙相似,但有其特点。乳牙色乳白,体积较小,颈嵴突出,颈部缩窄,冠根分明。乳前牙宽冠窄根(但上颌乳中切牙为宽冠宽根),根尖1/3弯向唇侧并偏向远中。乳磨牙的<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />缘聚缩,其中下颌第一乳磨牙的<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面呈三角形或四边形,牙根根干短,分叉度大,上颌乳磨牙分叉成3个根,下颌乳磨牙分叉成2个根。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        牙髓腔分为髓室和根管系统两部分。根管系统包括根管、管间吻合、根管侧支、根尖分岐、根尖分叉和副根管。前牙的髓腔形态与其牙体外形相似,髓室与根管无明显分界,大多为单根管,但下颌前牙时有唇舌向双根管者。前磨牙髓室宽大呈立方形,颊舌径大于近远中径,髓室顶形凹,最凹处大致与颈缘平齐,其上有颊、舌两个髓角,牙根内含1~2个根管。磨牙髓室大,呈立方形,髓室顶上有4~5个髓角分别突向相应的牙尖,髓室底可见2~4个根管口,与相应的根管相连通。乳牙的髓腔从相对比例来看,较恒牙者大,主要表现为髓室大、髓壁薄、髓角高、根管粗、根管斜度较大,根尖孔亦大。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">牙齿的形态结构与其生理功能是密切相关的。切缘与<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面具有切割、磨碎、容纳及排溢食物的作用。相邻两牙之间借助邻面凸度紧密邻接,可防止食物嵌塞,并有利于维持牙弓的稳定性。邻间隙被龈乳头充斥,防止食物存留,可保护牙槽骨和邻面。楔状隙是食物的排溢通道。牙冠的唇(颊)舌面有一定的凸度,可扩展龈缘,有利于龈组织的健康。前牙受力较小,牙根多为单根。后牙受力大而复杂,牙根多分叉,并有一定的分叉度。
                    </p>
                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第一节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙的演化</h2>
                    <p class="content">
                        生物的演化过程源远流长,先由海洋中的原始单细胞生物演化成多种类的无脊椎动物,再逐渐进化为鱼类、两栖类、爬行类,直至鸟类与哺乳类。面对生活环境的持续变化,各类动物为求生存,身体各器官的形态都发生了相应的改变。不同动物在由低等向高等演化过程中,因食物的来源、性质与种类的改变,其牙齿功能不同,形态也各有差异。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        鱼类的牙,主要功能为捕捉食物,没有咀嚼功能,其形态大多为单锥体或三角片状,并略向后弯曲,全口牙形态相近,故称同形牙。在每颗牙的舌侧,存在许多后备牙,一旦旧牙脱落,便由后备牙进行补充,终身持续去旧更新,故称多牙列(图2-3)。此类牙无牙根,仅借纤维膜附着于上下颌骨的边缘,因而容易脱落,故称端生牙(图2-4)。鱼类的牙数目非常多,有的可达200颗左右,其分布范围较为广泛,除上、下颌骨外,还见于腭、翼、犁等骨的表面,部分鱼类的牙齿在舌、咽、鳃、食管等表面也有分布。
                    </p>
 
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        <div class="page-box" page="19">
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                <div class="header-container">
                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <div class="image-row">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t90" src="../../assets/images/0025-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;鲨鱼的多牙列</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t90" src="../../assets/images/0025-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙附着于颌骨的方式示意图</p>
                            <p class="imgdescript-l">A.端生牙;B.侧生牙;C.槽生牙。</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">两栖类动物的牙亦存在单锥体牙、同形牙、多牙列和端生牙等形态与特点,但数目较鱼类少,分布于颌、腭、犁、蝶等骨的表面。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        爬行类动物的牙仍存在单锥体牙、同形牙的形态及多牙列,但分布范围已逐渐集中于颌骨上。其牙附着于颌骨的方式有两类:一类为侧生牙(图2-4),即不仅牙的基部与颌骨相连,其一侧也附着于颌骨边缘,这种牙虽没有完善的牙根,但较端生牙牢固;另一类为槽生牙(图2-4),有较为完善的牙根,包埋于牙槽窝内,附着较为牢固,如高级爬行动物鳄鱼的牙齿(图2-5)。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0025-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;鳄鱼的单锥体牙</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">现代鸟类的牙均已退化,但已灭绝的北美古鸟化石显示该鸟有牙,其上、下颌骨各有一排单锥体牙。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        哺乳类动物的牙数目明显减少,牙列一生只替换一次,故称双牙列,即一副乳牙列和一副恒牙列。为适应咀嚼食物的需要,全口牙形态各异,可分为切牙、尖牙、前磨牙和磨牙四类,故称异形牙。哺乳类动物的牙为槽生牙,附着牢固,主要功能为咀嚼,需承受较大的咬合力。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        综上所述,动物在由低等向高等进化过程中,为适应生存环境的变化,牙的演化具有以下特点:①牙的数目由多变少;②牙的形态由单一的同形牙演化为复杂的异形牙;③牙列由多牙列演化为双牙列;④牙的附着方式由端生牙、侧生牙向槽生牙演化,牙根从无到有;⑤牙的分布由广泛渐趋集中于上、下颌骨。
                    </p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第二节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙的组成、分类及功能</h2>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、牙的组成</h3>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)外形观察角度</p>
                    <p class="content">从外形观察来看,牙分为牙冠(dental crown)、牙根(dental root)和牙颈(dental cervix)三部分(图2-6)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0026-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙的外观</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体被牙釉质覆盖的部分称为牙冠,也称解剖牙冠,是牙行使咀嚼功能的主要部分。通常靠近牙颈处的一小部分牙冠被牙龈覆盖,其余大部分显露于口腔。牙冠的形态随其功能不同而有所差异。功能较弱、受力较小的牙,牙冠形态相对简单,功能较强、受力较大者形态也较为复杂。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体被牙骨质覆盖的部分称为牙根,也称解剖牙根。正常情况下,牙根完全包埋于牙槽骨内,起稳固和支持牙体的作用。牙根的形态与数目因牙的功能不同而有所差异,如前牙功能较为简单,受力较小,多为单根,而磨牙功能强大、受力大而复杂,其牙根通常分叉为2~3个根,以增强牙在颌骨内的稳固性。在多根牙中,牙根未分叉的部分称为根干。牙根的尖端称为根尖,每个牙根尖处常有一小孔,称为根尖孔,是牙髓的神经、血管及淋巴管出入牙的通道。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.牙颈</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙冠与牙根的交界处形成一条弧形曲线称为牙颈,又称颈缘或颈线。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        临床上,由于某些原因,如牙周病、不当刷牙、不良修复体等引起牙龈萎缩,或因慢性龈炎、服用某些药物(如苯妥英钠、硝苯地平)等造成牙龈增生,致使显露于口腔的牙体部分长短不一。将显露于口腔未被牙龈覆盖的牙体部分称为临床牙冠。而未显露于口腔的牙体部分称为临床牙根。由此可见,临床牙冠与临床牙根以龈缘为界,而解剖牙冠与解剖牙根以牙颈为界。通常情况下,健康人尤其是年轻人,其牙冠近颈部为牙龈所覆盖,故其临床牙冠小于解剖牙冠,临床牙根大于解剖牙根。随年龄增长,牙龈发生老年性萎缩,整个解剖牙冠,甚至部分牙根暴露于口腔,此时,临床牙冠大于解剖牙冠,临床牙根小于解剖牙根。
                    </p>
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                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)剖面观察角度</p>
                    <p class="content">从牙的纵剖面观察,牙体是由三种硬组织[牙釉质(enamel)、牙本质(dentin)、牙骨质(cementum)和一种软组织牙髓(dental
                        pulp)]构成(图2-7)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙釉质</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;是指覆盖于牙冠表层的、半透明的、高度钙化的白色硬组织,是全身最坚硬的矿化组织,对咀嚼压力和摩擦力具有高度耐受性。牙釉质中无机盐含量占95%~97%,有机物约占1%,水占2%~4%。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        在不同的牙,以及同一牙的不同部位上,牙釉质的厚度有所差异。恒切牙切缘处的牙釉质最厚,约为2mm;磨牙牙尖处的牙釉质最厚,约2.5mm;越近牙颈部牙釉质越薄。乳牙的牙釉质较薄,仅为0.5~1.0mm。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">牙釉质的颜色与其矿化程度密切相关。矿化程度越高,牙釉质越透明,其深层牙本质的淡黄色越易透出而使牙冠显得较黄;矿化程度越低,透明度越差,牙冠则显得较白。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0027-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙的剖面观示意图</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙本质</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;是指构成牙主体的淡黄色硬组织,其冠部被牙釉质覆盖,根部被牙骨质覆盖。牙本质的主要功能是保护其内部的牙髓并支持其表面的牙釉质及牙骨质,其硬度低于牙釉质,高于骨组织,含无机盐约70%,含有机物和水约30%。牙本质内部有一腔隙,称为髓腔(pulp
                        cavity),容纳牙髓组织。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.牙骨质</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;是指覆盖在牙根表层的淡黄色硬组织,是维持牙和牙周组织联系的重要结构。牙骨质中无机盐含量占45%~50%,有机物和水占50%~55%,其硬度低于牙本质。牙骨质的厚度在近牙颈部处较薄,越靠近根尖部和磨牙根分叉处则越厚。牙骨质和牙釉质在牙颈部相接处称为釉牙骨质界,它是解剖牙冠与牙根的分界线。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.牙髓</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;是指位于髓腔内的疏松结缔组织,内含血管、神经及淋巴管。正常牙髓颜色为粉红色,其主要功能是形成牙本质,并具有营养、感觉、防御和修复功能。
                    </p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、牙的分类</h3>
                    <p class="content">牙的分类方法有两种:一是按照牙的形态和功能来分类;二是按照牙在口腔内存在时间的久暂来分类。</p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)按牙的形态及功能分类</p>
                    <p class="content">食物在口腔内需经过切割、撕裂、捣碎和磨细等过程将其粉碎,才能利于消化。不同的牙功能不同,其形态也各异,据此可将恒牙分类如下:</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.切牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;切牙(incisor)位于口腔前部,中线两侧,上、下、左、右共8颗。牙冠形态简单,唇、舌面近似梯形,邻面近似楔形,切端薄而颈部厚。牙根为单根。其主要功能为切割食物。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.尖牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;尖牙(canine)位于口角处,上、下、左、右共4颗。牙冠较厚,唇、舌面近似五边形,邻面近似楔形,切端有一突出的牙尖。牙根为长而粗壮的单根。其主要功能为刺穿、撕裂食物。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.前磨牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;前磨牙(premolar)位于尖牙远中,磨牙近中,上、下、左、右共8颗。牙冠近似立方体,颊、舌面近似五边形,邻面呈四边形,咬合面有2~3个牙尖。牙根较扁,多为单根,亦有分叉者,以利于牙的稳固。其主要功能为协助尖牙撕裂食物,协助磨牙捣碎食物。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.磨牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;磨牙(molar)位于前磨牙远中,上、下、左、右共12颗。牙冠形态结构复杂,近似立方体或长方体,颊、舌面约呈梯形,邻面呈四边形,咬合面宽而大,有4~5个牙尖。牙根分叉为2~3根。其主要功能为磨细食物。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">按形态及功能分类,乳牙可分为乳切牙、乳尖牙及乳磨牙三类。</p>
                    <p class="content">临床上,以口角为界把牙分为前牙和后牙。切牙和尖牙位于口角之前,合称前牙;前磨牙和磨牙位于口角之后,合称后牙。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)按牙在口腔内存在时间的久暂分类</p>
                    <p class="content">按照牙在口腔内存在时间的久暂,将牙分为乳牙和恒牙两类。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.乳牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙(deciduous
                        teeth)是人类的第一副牙齿,自婴儿出生后6个月左右开始萌出,正常情况下至2岁半左右20颗乳牙全部萌出。自6岁开始,乳牙逐渐脱落,并被恒牙替换,在口腔内最短存在5~6年,最长存在10年左右。乳牙虽然存在时间短暂,却正值儿童颌面部发育的重要阶段,对促进食物消化和营养吸收,刺激颌骨正常发育及引导恒牙正常萌出有着重要意义(图2-8)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.恒牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;恒牙(permanent
                        teeth)是人类的第二副牙齿,自6岁左右开始萌出,替换脱落的乳牙。若无疾病或意外损伤不致脱落,脱落后再无牙替代。近代人第三磨牙有退化趋势,故恒牙数量为28~32(图2-9)。</p>
                    <div class="image-row1">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0028-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0028-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;恒牙</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
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                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">三、牙的功能</h3>
                    <p class="content">牙不仅是人行使咀嚼功能的主要器官,在辅助发音、言语及保持面部形态协调美观等方面也具有重要的作用。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)咀嚼</p>
                    <p class="content">食物进入口腔后,经过切牙的切割、尖牙的刺穿和撕裂、后牙的捣碎和研磨等一系列机械加工后,和唾液混合形成食团,便于吞咽。牙在咀嚼过程中产生的<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />力,经牙体传导至牙周组织,可刺激颌面部正常生长发育,促进牙周组织健康。同时,咀嚼活动可促进胃肠蠕动,刺激消化液分泌,促进消化功能。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)辅助发音和言语</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        在人类的发音和言语活动中,牙、唇及舌等器官均有参与。牙列中牙的排列位置,以及牙与舌、唇等的关系,对言语的清晰度和发音的准确性都有着重要的影响。如前牙缺失时,舌齿音、唇齿音等与牙有关的发音均会受到影响。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)保持面部协调美观</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        牙按照一定的顺序和规律生长于牙槽窝内,形成“U”形的上、下牙弓。牙、牙弓的正常形态,以及上、下颌牙的正常咬合关系可使唇颊部保持丰满,表情自然。多数牙缺失后,如无牙颌患者,牙槽骨因发生骨吸收而丰满度降低,唇颊部因失去支撑而塌陷,面部皱纹会增加,面下1/3的垂直距离缩短,面容呈现衰老状。错<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />畸形患者,牙弓形态和咬合关系的异常会严重影响到颜面部的美观。</p>
                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第三节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;临床牙位记录</h2>
                    <p class="content">
                        在临床工作中,常需简明描述牙的部位及名称。牙位记录包含牙的编号和所在部位等信息。通常以“十”字符号符号将上、下牙列分为A、B、C、D四区,分别对应右上颌区、左上颌区、右下颌区和左下颌区。水平线用以区分上下颌,垂直线表示中线,用以区分左右。各分区中的牙按一定规则依次编号。目前常用的牙位记录方法虽略有不同,但其表示牙位的符号均包含以上信息。
                    </p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、国际牙科联合会系统</h3>
                    <p class="content">国际牙科联合会系统(Federation Dentaire International
                        System,FDI)使用两位阿拉伯数字记录牙位,其中十位数表示牙所在分区,且区分乳、恒牙。恒牙牙弓用1、2、3、4表示四个分区,乳牙牙弓用5、6、7、8表示四个分区。个位数为牙的编号,恒牙用1~8表示,乳牙用1~5表示。各分区均自中线起由前向后依次编号。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.恒牙的临床牙位记录</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;见图2-10。例如,22表示左上颌侧切牙,45表示右下颌第二前磨牙。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0030-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;恒牙牙位记录(FDI)</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.乳牙的临床牙位记录</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;见图2-11。例如,53表示右上颌乳尖牙,75表示左下颌第二乳磨牙。
                    </p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、部位记录法</h3>
                    <p class="content">部位记录法使用“┘”“└”“┐”“┌”符号表示牙所在分区。恒牙用阿拉伯数字1~8编号,乳牙用罗马数字Ⅰ~Ⅴ编号。各分区均自中线起由前向后依次编号。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.恒牙的临床牙位记录</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;见图2-12。例如,<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0030_02.jpg" alt="" />表示右上颌尖牙。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0031-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙牙位记录(FDI)</p>
                    </div>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0031-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">图2-12&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;恒牙牙位记录(部位记录法)</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.乳牙的临床牙位记录</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;见图2-13。例如,<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0031_03.jpg" alt="" />表示左下颌第二乳磨牙。</p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0032-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">图2-13&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙牙位记录(部位记录法)</p>
                    </div>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">三、Palmer记录系统</h3>
                    <p class="content">Palmer记录系统恒牙与部位记录法相同(图2-12),但乳牙用英文字母A~E编号(图2-14)。</p>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0032-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">图2-14&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙牙位记录(Palmer记录系统)</p>
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                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">四、通用编号系统</h3>
                    <p class="content">使用通用编号系统记录牙位时,每颗牙均有其固定的编号。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.恒牙的临床牙位记录</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;采用阿拉伯数字1~32编号(图2-15)。上颌恒牙由右向左依次编号,右上颌第三磨牙编为#1,右上颌中切牙编为#8,左上颌中切牙编为#9,左上颌第三磨牙编为#16。下颌恒牙由左向右依次编号,左下颌第三磨牙编为#17,左下颌中切牙编为#24,右下颌中切牙编为#25,右下颌第三磨牙编为#32。
                    </p>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0033-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">图2-15&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;恒牙牙位记录(通用编号系统)</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.乳牙的临床牙位记录</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;采用英文字母A~T编号(图2-16)。上颌乳牙由右向左依次编号,右上颌第二乳磨牙编为A,右上颌乳中切牙编为E,左上颌乳中切牙编为F,左上颌第二乳磨牙编为J。下颌乳牙由左向右依次编号,左下颌第二乳磨牙编为K,左下颌乳中切牙编为O,右下颌乳中切牙编为P,右下颌第二乳磨牙编为T。
                    </p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                        <p class="imgdescript-l">图2-16&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙牙位记录(通用编号系统)</p>
                    </div>
                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第四节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙的萌出及乳恒牙更替</h2>
                    <p class="content">
                        牙的发育是一个连续的过程,包括发生、钙化及萌出三个阶段。牙胚由来自外胚叶的成釉器和来自外胚间叶的牙乳头、牙囊共同构成,包埋于颌骨内。随着颌骨的生长发育,牙胚也发育钙化,逐渐穿破牙囊和牙龈而显露于口腔。牙冠破龈而出的现象称为出龈。从牙冠出龈至上、下颌牙达到咬合接触的全过程称为萌出(图2-17)。牙萌出的时间是指出龈的时间。
                    </p>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0034-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-17&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙的萌出示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.龈下牙胚;B.出龈;C.牙的萌出。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                    <p class="content">乳、恒牙的萌出过程均具有以下规律:①按先后顺序萌出;②左右对称同期萌出;③下颌牙萌出略早于上颌同名牙;④女性同名牙的萌出时间略早于男性。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、乳牙的萌出</h3>
                    <p class="content">
                        乳牙牙胚于胚胎第2个月时发生,5~6个月时开始钙化,出生时颌骨内已有20个乳牙牙胚。婴儿出生后6个月左右乳牙开始萌出,至2岁半左右全部萌出。一般情况下,乳牙按Ⅰ→Ⅱ→Ⅳ→Ⅲ→Ⅴ的顺序萌出。各乳牙萌出的平均年龄见表2-1。
                    </p>
                    <p class="imgtitle">表2-1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙萌出的平均年龄</p>
                    <div class="bodyPic"><img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0035-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                    </div>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、恒牙的萌出及乳恒牙更替</h3>
                    <p class="content">
                        恒牙胚发生于乳牙胚形成之后,第一恒磨牙牙胚在胚胎第4个月时发生,是恒牙中发育最早的牙;切牙及尖牙牙胚形成于胚胎第5~6个月;前磨牙牙胚形成于胚胎第10个月;第二磨牙牙胚于1岁时形成;第三磨牙牙胚于4~5岁时形成。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        婴儿出生时第一磨牙牙胚开始钙化,3~4个月时切牙牙胚开始钙化,16~18个月时第一前磨牙牙胚开始钙化,20~24个月时第二前磨牙牙胚开始钙化,尖牙及第二磨牙牙胚钙化于5岁前。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        第一恒磨牙于6岁左右,在第二乳磨牙的远中开始萌出,不替换任何乳牙,是最早萌出的恒牙,通常称作“六龄齿”。2.5~6岁期间,儿童口腔内仅有乳牙存在,称为乳牙期。6~12岁期间,乳牙逐渐被恒牙替换,称为替牙期;12岁后,口腔内全部为恒牙,称为恒牙期。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        一般情况下,上颌的恒牙按6→1→2→4→(3、5)→7→8顺序萌出;下颌的恒牙按(6、1)→2→3→4→(5、7)→8顺序萌出。近代人第三磨牙的萌出变异较大,通常在20岁左右萌出,俗称“智齿”,也可能会因颌骨发育不足而致萌出更晚,甚至终生不萌出,或因遗传因素而导致先天性缺失。各恒牙萌出的平均年龄见表2-2。
                    </p>
                    <p class="imgtitle">表2-2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;恒牙萌出平均年龄</p>
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                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第五节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖常用名词和表面解剖标志</h2>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、牙冠各面的名称</h3>
                    <p class="content">每个牙冠都有多个面,各面根据其所在的位置而命名(图2-18)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.唇(颊)面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;前牙牙冠靠近唇黏膜的一面称为唇面。后牙牙冠靠近颊黏膜的一面称为颊面。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.舌(腭)面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;所有牙冠靠近舌侧的一面称为舌面,上颌牙牙冠舌面因接近腭侧,故亦称为腭面。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.邻面(近中面、远中面)</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;相邻两牙相互接触的面称为邻面。每个牙冠有两个邻面,靠近中线的邻面称为近中面,远离中线的邻面称为远中面。中线是指将颅面部平分为左右两等份的一条假想垂线,该线与正中矢状面一致,且将上下牙弓分成左右对称的两部分。正常情况下,该线通过两眼之间、鼻尖点、上颌及下颌两中切牙之间(图2-19)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">4.</span><img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" /><span class="bold">面和切嵴</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上、下颌后牙咬合时发生接触的一面称为<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面。前牙切端舌侧有切咬功能的部分称为切嵴。</p>
                    <div class="image-row1">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t90" src="../../assets/images/0036-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-18&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙冠各面名称</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0036-04.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-19&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;中线示意图</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、应用术语</h3>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙体长轴</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;沿冠根方向通过牙体中心的一条假想垂线,称为牙体长轴(图2-20)。牙冠表面与牙体长轴近似平行的四个面称为轴面,与牙体长轴近似垂直的面为<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面或切嵴。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.邻接点</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;相邻两牙在邻面互相接触的部位称为邻接点或接触区(图2-21)。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <div class="image-row1">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0037-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-20&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体长轴示意图</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0037-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-21&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;邻接点示意图</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.外形高点</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;以牙体长轴为中心,牙冠各轴面上最突出的部分称为外形高点。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.线角</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙冠上两个相邻牙面相交于一线,该线上所成的角称线角(图2-22)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">5.点角</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙冠上三个相邻牙面相交于一点,该点上所成的角称点角(图2-22)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">6.轴面角</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;两轴面相交形成的线角称为轴面角(图2-22)。
                    </p>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0037-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">图2-22&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;线角、点角、轴面角示意图</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">7.牙体三等份</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;为了明确牙各面上某个部位或解剖结构所在的区域,通常将牙各面分为三等份。如将牙冠切(<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />)龈向可分为切(<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />)1/3、中1/3和颈1/3(图2-23A、图2-23D);近远中向可分为近中1/3、中1/3和远中1/3(图2-23C、图2-23F);唇(颊)舌向可分为唇(颊)1/3、中1/3和舌1/3(图2-23B、图2-23E);牙根则分为根颈1/3、根中1/3和根尖1/3(图2-23A、图2-23D)。
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                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-23&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体三等份示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A、B、C.切牙牙体三等分;D、E、F.磨牙牙体三等分。</p>
                    </div>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">三、牙冠的表面解剖标志</h3>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)牙冠表面突起</p>
                    <div class="floatPic-30">
                        <img class="openImgBox t100" src="../../assets/images/0038-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-24&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙尖</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙尖</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;在尖牙切端和后牙<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面上近似锥体形的显著隆起,称为牙尖。牙尖的命名根据牙尖所在的位置而定,前磨牙分为颊尖和舌(腭)尖,磨牙分为近中颊尖、远中颊尖、近中舌(腭)尖、远中舌(腭)尖(图2-24)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.结节</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;是指牙冠上釉质过度钙化而形成的小突起,常见于面或切牙切端。如初萌出的切牙切端上有三个未经磨耗的结节,称为切端结节。随着牙的磨耗,切端结节可逐渐消失。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.舌隆突</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;位于前牙舌面近颈1/3处的半月形釉质突起,是前牙重要解剖特征之一,也是前牙舌面外形高点所在处。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.嵴</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;是指分布在牙冠表面上的长条状釉质隆起(图2-25)。根据嵴的位置、方向和形状,将嵴分为以下8种。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(1)切嵴:是指位于切牙切端舌侧长条状的釉质隆起,是上、下颌前牙发挥切、咬功能的部分。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)轴嵴:是指牙冠各轴面上,由牙尖顶端伸向牙颈部的纵行隆起。位于尖牙唇面者称为唇轴嵴;位于后牙颊面者称为颊轴嵴;位于尖牙及后牙舌面者称为舌轴嵴。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)边缘嵴:是指位于前牙舌面的近、远中边缘处和后牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面边缘上的嵴。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)三角嵴:是指位于后牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面上,从牙尖顶端伸向<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央的嵴。每个三角嵴均由近中和远中两个斜面汇合而成。</p>
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                    <p class="content">(5)牙尖嵴:是指从牙尖顶端分别伸向近、远中的嵴。后牙颊尖和舌尖的近、远中牙尖嵴分别构成颊<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴和舌<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴。</p>
                    <p class="content">(6)横嵴:是指相对牙尖的两条三角嵴横过<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面相连形成的嵴,是下颌第一前磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的重要解剖特征。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(7)斜嵴:是指<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面上两牙尖的三角嵴斜形相连形成的嵴,是上颌第一、第二磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面的重要解剖特征。</p>
                    <p class="content">(8)颈嵴:是指位于牙冠的唇面及颊面上颈1/3处的釉质隆起。前牙唇面的颈嵴称为唇颈嵴,后牙颊面的颈嵴称为颊颈嵴。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0039-07.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-25&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;嵴</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.上颌中切牙;B.上颌尖牙;C.下颌第一前磨牙;D.上颌第一磨牙;E.下颌第一磨牙。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)牙冠表面凹陷</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.窝</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;是指位于前牙舌面和后牙<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的不规则凹陷。如前牙的舌面窝,后牙的中央窝、远中窝等(图2-26)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0039-09.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-26&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;窝</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.上颌第一磨牙;B.上颌中切牙。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.沟</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;指位于牙冠轴面和<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面上,介于牙尖和嵴之间,或窝的底部细长形的凹陷部分(图2-27)。(1)发育沟:指牙生长发育时,两生长叶相融合所形成的明显而有规则的浅沟。根据其所处的位置命名,如上颌第一磨牙3条发育沟为颊沟、近中沟、远中舌沟。
                    </p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                    <p class="content">(2)副沟:发育沟以外的任何形态不规则的沟统称为副沟。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)裂:特指钙化不全的沟,是龋病的好发部位。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.点隙 3条或3条以上发育沟的汇合处或发育沟的末端所形成的点状凹陷称为点隙(图2-27)。此处牙釉质未完全连接,也是龋病的好发部位。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0040-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-27&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;沟、点隙</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)斜面</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        组成牙尖的各面称为斜面。一个牙尖由四个斜面组成,两个斜面相交成嵴,四个斜面相交组成牙尖的顶。各斜面的命名依其在牙尖的位置而定,如前磨牙颊尖的斜面有4个,其中颊尖颊侧的斜面有近中颊斜面和远中颊斜面,颊尖舌侧的斜面有近中舌斜面和远中舌斜面(图2-28)。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0040-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript">图2-28&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙尖斜面</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(四)生长叶</p>
                    <p class="content">牙生长发育的钙化中心称为生长叶。生长叶与生长叶融合处为发育沟。通常,牙由4~5个生长叶发育而成。</p>
                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第六节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;恒牙解剖形态</h2>
                    <p class="content">恒牙共有32颗,上颌和下颌各16颗。左右同名牙解剖形态相同,故恒牙共有16种不同的形态。</p>
 
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、切牙</h3>
                    <p class="content">切牙位于上、下牙弓前部,中线两侧,左右成对,呈弧线排列。切牙共有8颗,包括上颌中切牙、上颌侧切牙、下颌中切牙和下颌侧切牙。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)切牙类的共性特点</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;形态简单,呈铲形,由唇面、舌面、近中面和远中面四个轴面及一个切端组成。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.唇面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;近似梯形,切龈径大于近远中径;切缘宽于颈缘;切1/3有两条纵行发育沟;颈1/3处有唇颈嵴;颈缘呈弧形,凸向根方。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.舌面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;较唇面窄;中央有深浅不一的舌窝;颈部突出为舌隆突;舌面颈缘线也凸向根方。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.邻面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;呈三角形,颈部最厚、向切端渐变薄;上颌切牙的切嵴均在牙长轴的唇侧,下颌切牙的切嵴均在牙长轴的舌侧;接触区均位于切1/3;邻面的颈曲线凸向冠方,且近中面的颈曲度较远中面的大。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">5.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;均为单根;从根颈到根尖逐渐变细;根尖段略偏远中。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">6.切端</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;切牙初萌时,切端均可见3个半月状小突起,称为切端结节,随着磨耗而逐渐变成平直状。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">7.切牙体积</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;体积上,上颌切牙大于下颌切牙,其中上颌中切牙又大于上颌侧切牙,下颌侧切牙大于下颌中切牙。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)上颌中切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌中切牙(maxillary central incisor)位于上颌牙弓前部,中线两侧,是切牙中近远中径最宽、体积最大的牙。左、右中切牙近中面彼此相对。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)唇面:宽大平坦,近似梯形,牙冠的切颈径大于近远中径。近中缘长而较直,远中缘较短突,切缘平直,颈缘呈弧形,牙冠从切缘向牙颈方向逐渐内收,故切缘宽于颈缘。切缘与近中缘相交而成的近中切角近似直角,与远中缘相交而成的远中切角较为圆钝,这是区分左右上颌中切牙的重要依据。切1/3处可见两条浅的纵行发育沟,颈1/3处有唇颈嵴,唇颈嵴略突出是唇面的外形高点所在处(图2-29)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">牙冠唇面形态一般与人的面形相协调,常可分为尖圆型、卵圆型及方圆型三种。</p>
                    <p class="content">1)尖圆型:牙冠唇面颈部显著缩小,从近、远中切角到颈部成尖形。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)卵圆型:牙冠颈部与切端二者宽度均较窄,近、远中接触区之间最宽。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)方圆型:牙冠颈部与切端二者宽度相近。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (2)舌面:与唇面相似但较小。中央凹陷形成舌面窝,四周突起成嵴,其中切端有切嵴,近中有长而直的近中边缘嵴,远中有短而圆突的远中边缘嵴,颈部有大而显著的舌隆突。舌隆突表面常可见发育沟延伸至舌面窝(图2-29)。
                    </p>
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                    <p class="content">
                        (3)邻面:近似三角形。三角形的底为颈缘,呈“V”形,突向冠方。近中面大而平坦,接触区在切1/3靠近切角处。远中面短而圆突,接触区在切1/3距切角稍远处。近中面的颈曲度比远中面稍大(图2-29)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(4)切端:唇侧较平为切缘,舌侧圆突成切嵴。侧面观,切嵴在牙体长轴的唇侧(图2-29)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0042-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-29&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌中切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;粗壮而直的单根,唇侧宽于舌侧,根颈部横剖面呈圆三角形;牙根自颈部向根尖逐渐缩小,呈圆锥状。根长略大于冠长,或冠根长度相等,也有根长短于冠长者。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)上颌侧切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌侧切牙(maxillary lateral
                        incisor)位于上颌中切牙的远中,与上颌中切牙形态相似,但整体细长,唇凸舌凹。此牙变异较多见,多为锥形或先天缺失。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.唇面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;与上颌中切牙相似,但短窄、圆突;发育沟不如中切牙明显;近中缘稍长,近中切角近似锐角;远中缘较短,与切缘弧形相连,形成“大圆弧形”远中切角;切缘自近中至远中明显斜向颈部(图2-30)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.舌面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;近、远中边缘嵴较上颌中切牙明显,舌窝窄而深,呈“V”形。舌隆突窄,但位置居中,其上偶有裂沟越过并延伸到根部,成为龋病的好发部位(图2-30)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.邻面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;近似三角形,近中面较长,远中面较小且圆突;近、远中接触区均位于切1/3,近中接触区距切角近,远中接触区距切角稍远(图2-30)。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0042-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-30&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌侧切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,根长大于冠长,且较中切牙细长,根尖细且多偏向远中,根颈部横剖面为卵圆形。</p>
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                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
 
 
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(四)下颌中切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌中切牙位于下颌中线两侧,形态较为对称,体积是切牙甚至全口牙中最小者,牙冠宽度仅为上颌中切牙的2/3。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)唇面:外形呈窄长梯形,切缘平直,近中缘与远中缘较对称,近、远中切角约相等,均为锐角。唇面光滑平坦,发育沟浅。离体后难以区分左右(图2-31)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:较唇面略小,舌窝浅平,边缘嵴不明显,舌隆突小而不明显(图2-31)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:外形呈狭长三角形,近、远中接触区均在切1/3靠近切角处(图2-31)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)切端:侧面观,切嵴在牙体长轴上或稍偏舌侧(图2-31)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0043-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-31&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌中切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,窄而扁,唇舌径大于近远中径,根中1/3横剖面呈葫芦形。远中根面的纵行凹陷较近中根面的略深,根尖微偏向远中,可作为区分左右的参考。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(五)下颌侧切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌侧切牙与下颌中切牙形态相似,但体积稍大。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)唇面:外形亦呈窄长梯形,但近中缘、远中缘不对称,近中缘较平直,远中缘较圆突。切缘自近中至远中略斜向颈部,近中切角锐利,远中切角略圆钝。唇面发育沟不明显(图2-32)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:舌窝浅平,切嵴、边缘嵴均不明显,远中边缘嵴比近中边缘嵴稍短(图2-32)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0043-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-32&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌侧切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
 
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                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:外形近似狭长三角形,近、远中接触区不在同一水平,近中接触区位于切1/3靠近切角处,远中接触区在切1/3离切角稍远处(图2-32)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)切端:切嵴由近中向远中舌侧扭转。侧面观,切嵴位于牙体长轴上或稍偏舌侧(图2-32)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,较下颌中切牙稍长,近、远中根面纵行凹陷更明显。根颈1/3横剖面呈扁圆形,根尖微偏远中。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(六)上颌切牙与下颌切牙的区别</p>
                    <p class="content">1.上颌切牙牙冠宽大,下颌切牙牙冠窄小。上颌切牙唇面发育沟明显,下颌切牙唇面光滑,发育沟不明显。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.上颌切牙舌面边缘嵴明显,下颌切牙舌面无明显边缘嵴。上颌切牙舌窝较深,下颌切牙舌窝窄浅。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.侧面观,上颌切牙切嵴在牙体长轴唇侧,下颌切牙切嵴靠近牙体长轴或略偏向舌侧。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.上颌切牙牙根粗壮且直。下颌切牙牙根窄且扁,其近、远中根面均有纵行凹陷。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(七)切牙应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content">1.上颌中切牙位于上颌牙弓前部,易遭到意外损伤而折断或脱落,缺损后对发音和面部美观等均有直接影响,应及时修复。修复时应注意恢复的形态、色泽要与面形及邻牙相协调。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">2.切牙的邻面接触区与上颌侧切牙的舌面窝顶端自洁作用差,好发龋病。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.上颌两中切牙之间偶有额外牙,称为正中额外牙,应及早拔除,以免造成牙列拥挤及<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />关系紊乱。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.上颌中切牙牙根圆且直,拔除时可使用旋转力;而上颌侧切牙牙根可有弯曲,下颌切牙牙根呈扁形,故拔牙时不可使用旋转力,应采用唇舌向摇摆力。</p>
                    <p class="content">5.下颌切牙舌侧接近下颌下腺管开口处,发生龋病机会少,但舌侧颈部通常有牙结石沉积。</p>
                    <p class="content">6.上颌侧切牙常发生形态变异,如锥形侧切牙,偶有先天缺失者。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、尖牙</h3>
                    <p class="content">尖牙位于口角部位、侧切牙远中,上、下、左、右共4颗。因其牙冠切端有一明显而突出的牙尖,故名尖牙。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)尖牙类的共性特点</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;由唇面、舌面、近中面和远中面4个轴面和1个牙尖组成。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.唇面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;形似五边形,唇轴嵴突出,将唇面分成近、远中两个唇斜面。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">3.舌面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;亦形似五边形,舌轴嵴将舌面分成近、远中两个舌窝。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">4.邻面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;呈楔形,颈1/3处最厚,唇颈嵴和舌隆突均显著。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">5.牙尖</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;均偏近中。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">6.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;长,单根,根尖段偏向远中。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)上颌尖牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌尖牙是全口牙中最长的牙。牙冠的唇舌径明显大于其近远中径。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)唇面:切颈径大于近远中径,外形近似圆五边形,分别由近中缘、远中缘、近中斜缘、远中斜缘和颈缘组成。牙尖顶位于唇面近中,故近中斜缘短,远中斜缘长。近中缘长直,远中缘短突,颈缘呈弧形。初萌的尖牙,近、远中斜缘在牙尖顶相交成的角近似90°。近中斜缘与近中缘相交成近中切角,远中斜缘与远中缘相交成远中切角。唇面中部有突出的唇轴嵴,将唇面分为两个唇斜面,即近中唇斜面和远中唇斜面。唇轴嵴两侧各有一发育沟,介于三个生长叶之间。外形高点在中1/3和颈1/3交界处的唇轴嵴上(图2-33)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (2)舌面:较唇面小,舌隆突非常显著,是舌面外形高点所在处。由牙尖至舌隆突有一明显的纵嵴为舌轴嵴,将舌窝分成较小的近中舌窝、较大的远中舌窝。舌窝周围有近中边缘嵴、远中边缘嵴和近中牙尖嵴、远中牙尖嵴。近中边缘嵴较远中边缘嵴长直,又因牙尖偏近中,所以近中牙尖嵴短,远中牙尖嵴较长。舌轴嵴两侧有较短的副嵴,远中副嵴较近中副嵴显著(图2-33)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (3)邻面:形似三角形,较切牙短小,因为牙尖占去了冠长的1/3。舌隆突和唇颈嵴均较显著,故尖牙牙冠比其他前牙都厚。邻面较切牙突出,远中面较近中面更为突出且短小。近中接触区靠近近中切角;远中接触区距远中切角稍远,且略偏向舌侧(图2-33)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (4)牙尖:整个牙尖由四条嵴和四个斜面构成。四条嵴分别为近中牙尖嵴、远中牙尖嵴、唇轴嵴和舌轴嵴,四个斜面分别为近中唇斜面、远中唇斜面、近中舌斜面和远中舌斜面。唇面观,牙尖顶略偏近中。侧面观,牙尖顶位于牙体长轴的唇侧(图2-33)。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0045-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-33&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌尖牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.牙尖。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,圆锥形,粗壮强大,唇舌径大于近远中径,根颈横剖面为卵圆三角形。根长约为冠长的两倍,是全口牙中牙根最长者。牙根根尖较直,或略偏向远中。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)下颌尖牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌尖牙与上颌尖牙形态相似,但整个牙体比上颌尖牙窄且薄,故牙体显得细长。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)唇面:外形为狭长五边形,切颈径明显大于近远中径,较平坦,沟嵴不如上颌尖牙明显,唇轴嵴自牙尖顶止于冠中1/3处。近中缘长直,几乎与近中根面直线移行,远中缘较短。牙尖明显偏近中,故近中斜缘明显短于远中斜缘,二者长度比约为1∶2,两斜缘交角大于90°(图2-34)。
                    </p>
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                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:小于唇面,略凹。舌隆突和舌轴嵴均不如上颌尖牙舌面显著,窝浅嵴也低。外形高点在舌隆突上(图2-34)。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (3)邻面:为狭长三角形。近中面大而平,远中面短而突。近中接触区位于切1/3的近中切角处,远中接触区在切1/3与中1/3交界处,并偏舌侧(图2-34)。邻面观,冠与根的唇缘相连约成弧线。下颌尖牙牙冠舌倾,牙尖位于牙体长轴上。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(4)牙尖:唇面观,牙尖顶明显偏近中;侧面观,牙尖顶位于牙体长轴上(图2-34)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0046-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-34&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌尖牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,扁圆细长,为下颌牙中根最长者,长度仅次于上颌尖牙。根颈横剖面为扁圆形,根尖略偏远中。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(四)上颌尖牙与下颌尖牙的区别</p>
                    <p class="content">1.上颌尖牙体积较大,牙冠宽大;下颌尖牙体积较小,牙冠窄长。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.上颌尖牙轴嵴、颈嵴和舌隆突较明显,舌窝较深;下颌尖牙以上结构均不明显,舌窝较浅平。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.唇面观,上颌尖牙近中缘长而展开,下颌尖牙牙冠近中缘与牙根近中缘相连呈直线。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.邻面观,上颌尖牙冠与根的唇缘相连不成弧线,下颌尖牙因牙冠向舌侧倾斜而成弧形。</p>
                    <p class="content">5.上颌尖牙牙尖顶略偏向近中,下颌尖牙则明显偏向近中。</p>
                    <p class="content">6.上颌尖牙近中斜缘与远中斜缘相交近似直角,下颌尖牙两斜缘相交成钝角。</p>
                    <p class="content">7.上颌尖牙牙根粗大,根颈横剖面呈卵圆三角形。下颌尖牙牙根细长,根颈横剖面呈扁圆形。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(五)尖牙应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content">1.尖牙位于口角及牙弓拐弯处,牙根长而粗壮,对支撑双侧口角和维持面部丰满美观起重要作用,若上尖牙缺失,口角上部塌陷,影响面部美观。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.尖牙牙冠各面光滑,无点隙、裂沟,自洁作用较好,较少发生龋齿。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.尖牙牙根粗状长大,比较稳固,能承受较大<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />力,在口内存留时间较长,修复相关缺失牙时,常选作基牙。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.上颌尖牙牙根为较直的圆锥形单根,拔牙时可使用旋转力;下颌尖牙的牙根为扁圆单根,拔牙时在极松动情况下可适当配合较小的旋转力。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">三、前磨牙</h3>
                    <p class="content">
                        前磨牙位于口角之后、介于尖牙与磨牙之间,上下左右共8颗,包括上颌第一、第二前磨牙,以及下颌第一、第二前磨牙。前磨牙与前牙形态完全不同,牙冠不是楔形,而呈立方形,较前牙多一个咬合面。其主要功能为协助撕裂和捣碎食物。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)前磨牙的共性特点</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;呈立方形,由4个轴面(颊面、舌面、近中面、远中面)和1个<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面组成。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.轴面</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;颊面形似五边形,有颊轴嵴,发育沟浅;舌面较圆突,舌轴嵴不明显;邻面似四边形,接触区均在近<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />缘偏颊侧。<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面形态结构复杂。有颊、舌2个牙尖或3个牙尖(下颌第二前磨牙存在三尖型者),颊尖均大于舌尖,颊尖长而尖锐,舌尖短而圆钝。两尖的三角嵴均自牙尖顶伸向<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面中央,将<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面分成近、远中窝,有发育沟、点隙分布。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌第一前磨牙根多分叉为颊、舌两根。下颌前磨牙多为扁圆形单根,根尖段偏远中。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)上颌第一前磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌第一前磨牙(maxillary first premolar)是前磨牙类中体积最大的。牙冠窄而厚,颊舌径大于近远中径。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:外形与尖牙唇面相似,但较短小,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />龈径大于近远中径。颊尖略偏远中,是四个前磨牙中唯一的颊尖偏远中的牙,因此其近中牙尖嵴长,远中牙尖嵴短。近中缘在接触区稍突,而在近颈部稍凹,远中缘略直。牙颈部显著变窄,使得<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面宽而颈部窄。颊面中部的颊轴嵴微突,其两侧各有一条发育沟。颊面的外形高点在颈1/3的颊颈嵴上(图2-35)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:较颊面窄小、光滑圆突,似卵圆形。舌尖较颊尖短小、圆钝,略偏近中。外形高点在舌面中1/3处(图2-35)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:形似四边形,颈部较宽。近中面近颈部有凹陷,近中沟从<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面跨过近中边缘嵴达近中面,止于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />1/3处。近中面较平坦,远中面较圆突、光滑。近、远中接触区均靠近<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘偏颊侧(图2-35)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0047-11.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-35&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌第一前磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
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                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:外形为轮廓显著的六边形,颊侧宽舌侧窄,颊舌径大于近远中径(图2-35)。<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面四周有近、远中边缘嵴、颊<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴、舌<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴围绕,其中远中边缘嵴长于近中边缘嵴,颊<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴(颊尖的近、远中牙尖嵴组成)长于舌<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴(舌尖的近、远中牙尖嵴组成)。有颊尖、舌尖两个牙尖,颊尖长大、锐利、偏远中,舌尖短小、圆钝、偏近中。颊尖、舌尖的三角嵴分别由各自的牙尖顶伸向<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面中央。<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央凹陷为中央窝,中央窝内有近、远中点隙,两点隙之间为中央沟。由近中点隙发出的沟跨过近中边缘嵴达近中面,称为近中沟,是上颌第一前磨牙特有的解剖标志。由远中点隙发出伸向远中止于远中边缘嵴内的沟,称为远中沟。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;为扁圆形,颊舌径大于近远中径。牙根多在根中或根尖1/3处分叉为颊、舌两根(约占80%),颊根比舌根长大,牙根自颈缘至根分叉处有纵行凹陷。少数为单根,其近中根面的纵行凹陷较长。根尖略偏远中。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)上颌第二前磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌第二前磨牙(maxillary second premolar)形态与上颌第一前磨牙相似,颊舌径大于近远中径但牙冠小而圆突,轮廓不如上颌第一前磨牙显突。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:颊尖圆钝、偏向近中,发育沟及颊轴嵴均不明显,颈部较上颌第一前磨牙略宽(图2-36)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:颊舌面大小相似,差异不如上颌第一前磨牙明显。舌尖圆钝、偏向近中(图2-36)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:形似四边形。近中面大于远中面,近中面较宽且平直,远中面小而圆突。少见近中沟跨过近中边缘嵴至邻面,且近中面颈部少有凹陷。近远中接触区都在近<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />缘偏颊侧(图2-36)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:外形为椭圆形,各角均较圆钝(图2-36)。颊<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴与舌<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴宽度相近,颊尖、舌尖的高度及大小也相近,均偏近中。中央窝较浅,近远中点隙相距近,故中央沟短。无近中沟跨过近中边缘嵴至近中面。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0048-11.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-36&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌第二前磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;多为单根、扁圆形。牙根的近远中面上有浅的纵行凹陷,根尖偏向远中。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(四)下颌第一前磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第一前磨牙(mandibular first premolar)是前磨牙类中体积最小的牙。其颊舌径与近远中径相近,牙冠显得较方圆。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
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                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)颊面:形似五边形,颊尖长而尖锐、偏近中,近中缘平直,远中缘圆突,从接触区至颈缘收缩变窄。颊轴嵴在颈1/3处显突,颊颈嵴呈新月形突起,外形高点在颊面颈1/3处(图2-37)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:较窄小,仅为颊面的1/2。舌尖也明显小于颊尖,短小圆钝、偏向近中。外形高点在舌面中1/3处(图2-37)。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (3)邻面:形似四边形。颊尖高尖、舌尖短小,颊舌尖高度落差是前磨牙中最大的。邻面观,牙冠明显向舌侧倾斜,使得颊尖顶位于牙体长轴上,而舌尖顶位于牙体长轴的舌侧。颊侧缘长而凸,舌侧缘短而直。近远中接触区都在近<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />缘偏颊侧(图2-37)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:形似卵圆形,颊侧明显宽于舌侧(图2-37)。最大特点是颊尖明显高大而舌尖明显矮小,两尖均偏近中。颊尖三角嵴长而显著,约占<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的2/3;舌尖三角嵴较为短小,约占<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的1/3。颊、舌尖的三角嵴相连形成横嵴,为该牙的重要解剖标志。横嵴将<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面分为较小的三角形近中窝和较大的长圆形远中窝,远中窝较近中窝位置低且深,并略偏舌侧。近、远中点隙之间有中央沟相连,中央沟被横嵴分成近中沟和远中沟,其中近中沟跨过近中边缘嵴达舌面,称为近中舌沟,是下颌第一前磨牙最明显的识别特征之一。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0049-06.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-37&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌第一前磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,扁而细长,颊侧宽于舌侧。近中面的根尖部常有分叉痕迹。根尖略弯远中。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(五)下颌第二前磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第二前磨牙(mandibular second premolar)与下颌第一前磨牙形态相似,但体积稍大。牙冠的<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />颈径、颊舌径、近远中径三径相近,故牙冠外形方圆。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:形似五边形,颊尖圆钝、略偏近中。颊轴嵴较圆突,颊面颈部相对较宽,收缩不如下颌第一前磨牙明显(图2-38)。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:如有1个舌尖者,则舌面小于颊面,舌尖小于颊尖且偏近中。如有2个舌尖者,则舌面宽于颊面,两舌尖之间以舌沟分隔,近中舌尖大于远中舌尖(图2-38)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:近、远中接触区均在近<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘偏颊侧。与下颌第一前磨牙不同的是,牙冠向舌侧倾斜度较小,颊尖顶靠近牙体长轴;颊舌尖高度差距较小,无近中舌沟(图2-38)。</p>
 
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面:三尖型者,<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面外形呈方圆形,颊尖最大,近中舌尖次之,远中舌尖最小,发育沟多为“Y”形。两尖型者,<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面外形呈椭圆形,各轴角均圆钝,颊尖、舌尖各一个,均偏近中,发育沟多呈“H”形或“U”形(图2-38)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0050-04.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-38&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌第二前磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根、扁圆形,近中面无分叉痕迹,根尖段偏向远中。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(六)上颌前磨牙与下颌前磨牙的区别</p>
                    <p class="content">1.体积上,上颌前磨牙牙冠较下颌前磨牙大,其中上颌第一前磨牙是前磨牙中体积最大的,其次是上颌第二前磨牙,然后是下颌第二前磨牙,下颌第一前磨牙是前磨牙中体积最小的。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">2.侧面观,上颌前磨牙牙冠较直,颊尖顶位于牙体长轴的颊侧;而下颌前磨牙因牙冠向舌侧倾斜,故颊尖顶靠近牙体长轴或在牙体长轴上。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.牙冠形态上,上颌前磨牙牙冠窄长,颊舌径大于近远中径;下颌前磨牙牙冠较方圆,颊舌径和近远中径相近。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.牙尖大小上,上颌前磨牙颊尖、舌尖大小相近,舌尖为功能尖;下颌前磨牙颊尖明显大于舌尖,颊尖为功能尖。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(七)前磨牙应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content">1.前磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面的点隙、沟及邻面均为龋病好发的部位,充填或修复治疗时应恢复其正常的解剖外形及接触区的形态和位置。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.第一磨牙缺失后,第二前磨牙常作为修复第一磨牙缺失牙的基牙。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.因前磨牙牙根较扁或为双根,拔牙时不可使用旋转力,主要使用颊舌向摇摆力。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.上颌前磨牙根尖紧邻上颌窦,根尖感染可能波及上颌窦;取断根时要注意避免使用推力,以免把断根推入上颌窦内。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        5.前磨牙的中央窝内,有时可出现一锥形小牙尖,称畸形中央尖,多发生在前磨牙,尤其是下颌第二前磨牙,偶见于磨牙,单侧或双侧对称性发生。畸形中央尖下方有髓角突入,易因折断或磨损而露髓,造成牙髓的感染。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">6.下颌前磨牙常作为寻找颏孔的标志。</p>
                    <p class="content">7.前磨牙可发生错位、易位或额外牙。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">四、磨牙</h3>
                    <p class="content">
                        磨牙位于牙弓后端、前磨牙的远中,上、下、左、右共12颗,包括上颌第一、第二、第三磨牙和下颌第一、第二、第三磨牙。磨牙是口腔中体积最大、发挥咀嚼功能最大的牙齿。牙冠体积大,呈立方形或长方形,由颊面、舌(腭)面、近中面和远中面4个轴面及1个<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面组成,牙根多分叉为2~3个根,其主要功能是磨细食物。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)磨牙的共性特点</p>
                    <p class="content">1.磨牙体积从近中向远中依次减小,即第一磨牙>第二磨牙>第三磨牙。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.牙冠体积较前磨牙大,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面宽大,形态结构复杂。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">3.上颌磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面呈斜方形,颊舌径大于近远中径;下颌磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面呈长方形,近远中径大于颊舌径。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.牙尖多,一般为4~5个牙尖。</p>
                    <p class="content">5.磨牙冠宽大于冠长,即近远中径大于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />颈径。颊、舌面呈梯形,颊面外形高点位于颈1/3处,舌面外形高点位于中1/3处。邻面呈四边形,近、远中接触区均位于<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />1/3的<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘附近。</p>
                    <p class="content">6.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面发育沟、副沟众多,并有通向颊、舌面的发育沟,便于食物在咀嚼时从<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面溢出。同时因窝、沟、点隙多而好发龋病。</p>
                    <p class="content">7.牙根根干粗,上颌磨牙多分叉为3个根,下颌磨牙多分叉为2个根。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)上颌第一磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌第一磨牙(maxillary first molar)在6岁左右萌出,又称为“六龄齿”。它是上颌牙中体积最大者。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:形似梯形,近远中径大于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />颈径,近中缘长而平直,远中缘稍短而圆突,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘由近、远中颊尖的4条牙尖嵴构成,呈“W”形(图2-39)。颈部缩窄,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘宽于颈缘。近中颊尖略宽于远中颊尖,两颊尖之间有颊沟通过。颊沟约与牙长轴平行,终止于颊面中1/3处,末端形成颊点隙,并分出两条小沟。近中颊尖的颊轴嵴比远中颊尖的颊轴嵴显突。颊颈嵴突出,以近中侧最为显著,外形高点在颈1/3处。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:与颊面大小相似或稍小(图2-39)。<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘由近、远中舌尖的4条牙尖嵴连续组成。近中舌尖明显宽于远中舌尖,约占舌面的2/3,两舌尖之间有远中舌沟通过。远中舌沟由<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面发出,延伸至舌面1/2处,末端不形成点隙。近中舌尖的舌侧偶有第五牙尖,又称卡氏尖,其与近中舌尖之间以新月形的沟分隔。卡氏尖既不达<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面,其内部也无髓角,故称为卡氏结节。舌面舌轴嵴不明显,外形高点在中1/3处。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:形似四边形,颊舌径大于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />颈径。近中面宽而平坦,其接触区位于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />1/3的颊1/3与中1/3交界处(图2-39)。远中面小而圆突,其接触区位于<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />1/3的中1/3与舌1/3交界处。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:外形轮廓呈斜方形,尖、窝、点隙、沟、嵴多而复杂(图2-39)。</p>
                    <p class="content">1)牙尖:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面有近中颊尖、远中颊尖、近中舌尖和远中舌尖四个牙尖,其中近中舌尖最大,是上颌第一磨牙的主要功能尖。近中颊尖稍大,远中颊尖稍小,远中舌尖则最小。少数人在近中舌尖舌侧有一个无功能的第五牙尖。颊尖高而尖锐,为非功能尖;舌尖低而圆钝,为功能尖。
                    </p>
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                    <p class="content">2)边缘嵴:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面四周由4条边缘嵴围成,包括颊<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴、舌<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴、近中边缘嵴和远中边缘嵴。其中,颊<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴由两颊尖的4条牙尖嵴构成,舌<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴由两舌尖的4条牙尖嵴构成。由4条边缘嵴围成的4个<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />角中,近颊<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />点角及远舌<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />点角为一对锐角,远颊<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />点角及近舌<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />点角为一对钝角,这是上颌第一磨牙的特点之一。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)三角嵴:每个牙尖都有一条三角嵴,从其牙尖顶端斜伸向<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央。其中,近中舌尖的三角嵴与远中颊尖的三角嵴斜形相连,跨过磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面形成斜嵴,是上颌磨牙特有的解剖标志之一,以上颌第一磨牙最为明显。</p>
                    <p class="content">4)斜面:每个牙尖都有四个斜面,其中颊尖的颊斜面与对<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />牙无咬合接触,为非功能斜面,但颊尖的舌斜面、舌尖的颊斜面和舌斜面与对<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />牙均有咬合接触,这些斜面为功能斜面。</p>
                    <p class="content">5)窝、点隙:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面中部凹陷成窝,斜嵴将<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面窝分隔成近中窝和远中窝。近中窝较大,位于近<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴与斜嵴之间,约占<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的2/3,又称中央窝,窝底部有中央点隙。远中窝较小,位于斜嵴与远<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴之间,约占<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面的1/3,窝底部有远中点隙。</p>
                    <p class="content">6)沟:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面发育沟主要有三条。①颊沟:由中央点隙发出,经两颊尖之间跨过颊<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴到达颊面中部。②近中沟:由中央点隙伸向近中,止于近中边缘嵴内侧。③远中舌沟:远中窝内有一斜行发育沟称为远中舌沟,其一端经两舌尖之间跨过舌<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴达舌面中部,另一端止于远中边缘嵴内侧。④远中沟:中央点隙向远中方向形成远中沟(又称为斜嵴横沟),通常在到达斜嵴时已不明显,但此沟亦可跨过斜嵴至远中窝内,在上颌第一磨牙此沟不明显。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;由三根组成,三根分叉部位在根颈1/3与根中1/3交界处(图2-39)。颊侧两个根分别为近中颊根和远中颊根,两颊根均呈扁形,其颊舌径宽、近远中径窄。其中,近中颊根位于牙冠近中颊侧颈部之上,颊面宽于舌面,近远中根面较平整;远中颊根位于牙冠远中颊侧颈部之上,比近中颊根短小。舌侧1个根称舌根,亦称腭根。舌根位于牙冠舌侧颈部之上,扁宽、粗壮,是三根中最大者。舌根的近远中径宽、颊舌径窄,其颊舌根面宽而平,但舌面有纵行凹陷。两颊根之间相距较近,而颊根与舌根之间分开较远,三根之间根间距较大,有利于牙的稳固和<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />力的分散传导。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0052-25.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-39&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌第一磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)上颌第二磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌第二磨牙(maxillary second molar)形态与上颌第一磨牙相似(图2-40),但体积稍小。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0053-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-40&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌第二磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">因上颌第二磨牙的远中舌尖部分退化,故其牙冠可表现为四尖型和三尖型两种类型。四尖型形态如下。</p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:自近中至远中向舌侧的倾斜度大于上颌第一磨牙,近中颊尖大,远中颊尖明显缩小,近中颊轴嵴比远中颊轴嵴稍显突出。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:近中舌尖占舌面的大部分,远中舌尖更小,极少有第五牙尖。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:近中面较大而平坦,远中面较小而圆突。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:斜嵴不如上颌第一磨牙明显,有远中沟横过,远中舌沟不明显。</p>
                    <p class="content">三尖型上颌第二磨牙,其整个牙冠及<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面形态与上颌第一磨牙明显不同,具体形态为颊面宽大,舌面由于远中舌尖不同程度退化而明显小于颊面,<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面类似三个牙尖形状。近中颊尖与远中颊尖大小相近,近中舌尖特大,远中舌尖极小或全部退化消失。斜嵴不清楚或消失,发育沟、窝、点隙形态不规则。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;由三根组成,两颊根间及颊舌根间的分叉度均较上颌第一磨牙小。少数牙近中颊根或远中颊根与腭根融合,或近、远中颊根融合成两根;极少数为近、远中颊根和舌根相互融合。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(四)上颌第三磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌第三磨牙(maxillary third
                        molar)形态、大小、位置等变异及先天性缺失甚多(图2-41)。其标准形态与上颌第二磨牙(四尖型)相似,但牙冠较小,根较短,各轴面中1/3较圆突,颊舌面外形高点均在中1/3处。牙冠颊面自近中至远中向舌侧的倾斜度更大。
                    </p>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0053-06.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-41&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右上颌第三磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">上颌第三磨牙变异较多,如远中舌尖很小或缺如呈三尖型,或类似上颌前磨牙的双尖型、多尖型等。牙根的数目和形态变异很大,多数合并成一锥形根。</p>
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                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(五)下颌第一磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第一磨牙(mandibular first molar)是下颌牙中体积最大者,也是恒牙中最早萌出的牙,在6岁左右萌出,亦称其为“六龄齿”(图2-42)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:呈倒梯形,近远中径大于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />颈径(图2-42)。<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘长于颈缘,近中缘直,远中缘突。<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘可见近中颊尖、远中颊尖和远中尖的半个牙尖,其中,近中颊尖最宽,远中尖最窄。近、远中颊尖之间以颊沟分隔,颊沟自<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面延伸而来达颊面中1/3处,末端形成颊点隙。远中颊尖与远中尖之间以远颊沟分隔,远颊沟亦自<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面延伸而来达颊面止于<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />1/3与中1/3交界处,该沟短且浅,末端不形成点隙。近、远中颊尖的颊轴嵴与颊沟平行,远中尖的颊轴嵴不明显。颊颈嵴突出,与颈缘平行。外形高点在颈1/3处。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:较颊面小、光滑圆突(图2-42)。<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘可见近中舌尖和远中舌尖,两舌尖均较高而尖锐。近中舌尖大于远中舌尖,两舌尖间有舌沟通过,止于舌面中1/2处,末端无点隙。舌轴嵴不明显。外形高点在中1/3处。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:形似四边形,牙冠向舌侧倾斜,颊尖低于舌尖(图2-42)。近中面宽且平整,其颊缘与颈缘构成的颊颈角和由舌缘与<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />缘构成的舌<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />角较锐,接触区位于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />1/3偏颊侧。远中面小于近中面,接触区位于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />1/3的中1/3处。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:外形似长方形,近远中径大于颊舌径。<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面形态复杂,是尖、窝、沟、嵴、斜面最多的牙(图2-42)。</p>
                    <p class="content">1)牙尖:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面有5个牙尖,其中颊侧3个牙尖、舌侧2个牙尖。颊尖均短而圆钝,为功能尖;舌尖均长而尖锐,为非功能尖。远中尖是最小的牙尖,位于颊面与远中面交界处。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)边缘嵴:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面四周由四条边缘嵴共同围成,四个<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />角均较圆钝。因牙冠由近中向远中聚拢,由颊侧向舌侧聚拢,故颊<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴长于舌<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />边缘嵴,近中边缘嵴较长且直,远中边缘嵴较短且突。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)三角嵴:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面有5条三角嵴,由各自的牙尖顶伸向<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央。其中,远中颊尖的三角嵴最长,远中尖的三角嵴最短。</p>
                    <p class="content">4)斜面:每个牙尖都有四个斜面,其中舌尖的舌斜面与对<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />牙无咬合接触,为非功能斜面;舌尖的颊斜面及颊尖和远中尖的所有斜面与对<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />牙均有咬合接触,为功能斜面。</p>
                    <p class="content">5)窝、点隙:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央大的凹陷为中央窝,位于近中颊舌尖三角嵴的远中面、远中颊舌尖三角嵴的近远中面和远中尖三角嵴的近中面之间,窝内有中央点隙。除中央窝外,还有两个小窝,一个是位于近中颊舌尖三角嵴的近中面与近中边缘嵴之间较小的三角形近中窝,又称近中三角窝;另一个是位于远中尖三角嵴的远中面与远中边缘嵴之间形似三角形的远中窝,又称远中三角窝。中央窝最深,近中窝最浅,近中窝和中央窝均在中轴上,远中窝略偏舌侧。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">6)沟:<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面共有5条发育沟。①颊沟:自中央点隙发出伸向颊侧,经近、远中颊尖之间至颊面,止于颊点隙;②舌沟:自中央点隙发出,经近、远中舌尖之间至舌面;③近中沟:自中央点隙伸向近中,止于近中边缘嵴内侧;④远中沟:由中央点隙伸向远中,止于远中边缘嵴内侧;⑤远颊沟:从远中沟分出,经远中颊尖与远中尖之间向远颊方向达颊面。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;双根,扁而厚,根干较短但分叉度大(图2-42)。近中根比远中根稍大,其近、远中根面有较深的纵行凹陷,而远中根的纵行凹陷仅见于其近中根面,两根根尖均偏向远中。远中根偶有再分叉为颊、舌两根,远中舌根细小弯曲。
                    </p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0055-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-42&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌第一磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(六)下颌第二磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第二磨牙(mandibular second molar)(图2-43)体积比下颌第一磨牙稍小。根据其<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面形态可分为五尖型和四尖型。五尖型与下颌第一磨牙形态极相似,<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面亦有5个牙尖和5条发育沟,离体后二者难以区分。四尖型是下颌第二磨牙的主要类型,<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面仅有4个牙尖,远中尖退化消失。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0055-06.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-43&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌第二磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面外形呈方圆形,有4个牙尖,其中近中颊、舌尖稍大于远中颊、舌尖,无远中尖。中央窝位于<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央,有4条发育沟,即颊沟、舌沟、近中沟和远中沟,它们呈“十”字形分布。边缘嵴和发育沟使整个<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面形似“田”字形,是该牙的特点。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;多为双根,扁而厚,两根分叉度小,根尖皆偏向远中。有时两根融合成一锥形根。少数牙近、远中根在颊侧发生融合,舌侧仍分叉,牙根横断面呈C形或马蹄形,称为C形根或马蹄根。极少数牙近中根可再分叉为近中颊根和近中舌根,形成3根。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(七)下颌第三磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第三磨牙(mandibular third molar)形态、大小、位置常发生变异(图2-44)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.形态</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面有5个牙尖者,形态与下颌第一磨牙相似;有4个牙尖者,形态与下颌第二磨牙相似。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;整个牙冠似球形。各轴面较光滑,外形高点均在牙冠中1/3处。<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面缩小,尖、窝、沟、嵴等不清晰,副沟居多。</p>
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                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">3.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;多融合成一锥形根,也有分叉成多根者。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0056-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-44&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌第三磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(八)上颌磨牙与下颌磨牙的区别</p>
                    <p class="content">1.上颌磨牙的牙冠较直,而下颌磨牙的牙冠向舌侧倾斜。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.上颌磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面呈斜方形,近远中径小于颊舌径。下颌磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面呈长方形,近远中径大于颊舌径。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.上颌磨牙的颊尖锐、舌尖钝,舌尖为功能尖。下颌磨牙的舌尖锐、颊尖钝,颊尖为功能尖。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.上颌磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面有斜嵴,近中舌尖的舌侧有时有第五牙尖出现。下颌磨牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面无斜嵴,舌尖的舌侧无第五牙尖出现。</p>
                    <p class="content">5.上颌磨牙的牙根多为三根,下颌磨牙的牙根多为双根。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(九)磨牙应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content">1.第一磨牙萌出最早,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面窝、沟、点隙又较多,容易患龋病,充填或修复时应注意恢复其正常的解剖形态。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.第一磨牙与第二乳磨牙位置邻近,解剖形态极相似,替牙期同时存在于口腔中,易误认,拔除第二乳磨牙时应特别注意仔细鉴别,以防发生差错。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.上颌第二磨牙牙冠颊面正对的颊黏膜上有腮腺管的开口。上颌第三磨牙可作为寻找腭大孔的标志。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.第三磨牙易发生先天缺失或形态位置异常。若第三磨牙错位萌出或阻生,易引起冠周炎或第二磨牙龋坏等,应尽早拔除;若第三磨牙位置正常,且与对<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />牙有正常咬合关系,则应保留。</p>
                    <p class="content">5.上、下颌磨牙拔除时,应考虑牙根的数目、分叉度和方向,以免牙根折断或残留。</p>
                    <p class="content">6.上、下颌第一磨牙的位置关系对建立正常<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />关系起重要作用,故应尽量保留。一旦缺失,应尽早修复,以免引起邻牙移位、对<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />牙伸长,从而影响正常的咬合关系。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        7.上颌磨牙牙根与上颌窦邻近,尤其是上颌第一磨牙根尖距上颌窦下壁最近,其根尖感染可引起牙源性上颌窦炎,拔除上颌磨牙或摘除其断根时不宜使用推力,以免穿通上颌窦底造成口腔上颌窦瘘。下颌磨牙根尖与下颌管接近,拔除下颌磨牙断根、残根时,不宜使用压力,以防损伤下牙槽神经和血管。
                    </p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第七节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳牙解剖形态</h2>
                    <p class="content">
                        乳牙,作为人类的第一副牙齿,上、下颌各10颗,共20颗,左右成对,排列于中线两侧,自中线向远中依次为乳切牙类、乳尖牙类和乳磨牙类。与恒牙相比,乳牙没有前磨牙。除下颌第一乳磨牙形态特异外,其余乳牙的解剖形态均与相应的恒牙相似。
                    </p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、乳牙与恒牙的鉴别要点</h3>
                    <p class="content">
                        1.乳牙体积较小,而同名恒牙体积较大。乳磨牙的体积从近中到远中依次递增,即第二乳磨牙大于第一乳磨牙,而恒磨牙的体积依次递减,即第一磨牙体积最大,第二磨牙次之,第三磨牙最小。</p>
                    <p class="content">2.乳牙牙冠釉质层薄、钙化程度差,呈乳白色,而恒牙釉质层厚、钙化程度好,呈淡黄色。</p>
                    <p class="content">3.乳牙颈部缩窄明显,冠根分明,尤其乳前牙呈典型的宽冠窄根特征。而恒牙颈部略微缩窄,冠根分界不明显。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.乳牙的颈嵴突出,尤以近中侧最为突出,而恒牙则略突起。</p>
                    <p class="content">5.乳牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面聚缩,呈不规则的四边形或三角形,尖、窝、沟、嵴不明显。而恒牙<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面宽阔,呈斜方形或长方形。</p>
                    <p class="content">6.由于乳牙下方有恒牙牙胚,乳前牙根尖段向唇侧弯曲;乳磨牙根干短,但根的分叉显著增大,根尖间距大于牙冠宽度。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、乳切牙</h3>
                    <p class="content">乳切牙(deciduous incisor)左右成对排列于中线两侧,包括上颌乳中切牙、上颌乳侧切牙、下颌乳中切牙和下颌乳侧切牙。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)上颌乳中切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌乳中切牙(maxillary deciduous central incisor)形态与上颌恒中切牙相似,但体积较小,牙冠短宽,呈铲形(图2-45)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)唇面:呈梯形,表面光滑,近远中径大于切颈径,牙冠短宽。近中缘与切缘平直,远中缘及颈缘较突,近中切角似直角,远中切角圆钝,颈嵴明显突起。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:与唇面大小相近,舌窝明显,近、远中边缘嵴较突出,舌隆突明显突起。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:呈三角形,因唇颈嵴和舌隆突特别突出,故冠颈部很厚,冠根分明。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,宽而扁,唇面宽于舌面,根长约为冠长的2倍。根尖1/3弯向唇侧,并略偏向远中。冠宽根宽为该牙的重要解剖特征。
                    </p>
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                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0058-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-45&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌乳中切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)上颌乳侧切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌乳侧切牙(maxillary deciduous lateral incisor)形态与上颌恒侧切牙相似(图2-46)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0058-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-46&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌乳侧切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;较上颌乳中切牙体积小,牙冠短窄。唇面微突,切颈径大于近远中径,近中切角圆钝,远中切角似圆弧形。舌面窝较浅,唇颈嵴、舌隆突均较上颌乳中切牙小。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,窄而略厚,根尖弯向唇侧,并略偏向远中。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)下颌乳中切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌乳中切牙(mandibular deciduous central incisor)形态与下颌恒中切牙相似,但不如其窄长(图2-47)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0058-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-47&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌乳中切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                    </div>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;长度稍大于宽度,唇面光滑,切缘较直,近、远中缘对称,近、远中切角对称,均为锐角,唇颈嵴较突起。舌面舌窝明显,边缘嵴窄而突,舌隆突小而突。邻面呈三角形,切嵴较薄,位于牙长轴上。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,细长,其长度约为冠长的2倍。牙根较直,根尖略弯向唇侧。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(四)下颌乳侧切牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌乳侧切牙(mandibular deciduous lateral incisor)外形与下颌侧切牙相似,但不如其窄长(图2-48)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0059-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-48&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌乳侧切牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;较下颌乳中切牙稍大。唇面近中缘长直,远中缘短突,近中切角较锐,远中切角圆钝。切嵴由近中向远中舌侧斜行。舌面的边缘嵴、舌隆突均明显,舌窝较深。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,长度较下颌乳中切牙稍长,牙根唇面宽于舌面。根尖弯向唇侧,并略偏向远中。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">三、乳尖牙</h3>
                    <p class="content">乳尖牙(deciduous canine)包括上颌乳尖牙和下颌乳尖牙。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)上颌乳尖牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌乳尖牙(maxillary deciduous canine)形态与上颌恒尖牙相似,但体积较小(图2-49)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0059-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-49&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌乳尖牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙尖长大,约占牙冠长度的1/2。牙尖偏向远中,故近中斜缘长于远中斜缘,这是区分左、右上颌乳尖牙,以及与上颌恒尖牙相鉴别的主要标志,唇轴嵴明显,颈嵴显突,牙根颈部显著缩窄。舌面边缘嵴显突,舌轴嵴将舌窝分成近中舌窝和远中舌窝,近中舌窝大于远中舌窝。邻面观,牙尖顶位于牙长轴的唇侧。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,较直而细长,根长约为冠长2倍,牙根唇面宽于舌面。根尖弯向唇侧,并略偏向远中。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)下颌乳尖牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌乳尖牙(mandibular deciduous canine)形态与下颌恒尖牙相似,但体积较小(图2-50)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0060-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-50&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌乳尖牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.切端。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.牙冠</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;外形与上颌乳尖牙相似,但牙冠短窄。牙尖偏近中,故远中斜缘长而近中斜缘短。近中缘较长而直,远中缘短而圆突。唇轴嵴明显,几乎与牙体长轴相平行,唇颈嵴突出。舌面的舌窝明显,边缘嵴及舌轴嵴略突,舌轴嵴把舌窝分成近中舌窝和远中舌窝。邻面观,牙尖顶位于牙长轴的舌侧。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;单根,较上颌乳尖牙略短而细,根尖弯向唇侧,并略偏向远中。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">四、乳磨牙</h3>
                    <p class="content">乳磨牙(deciduous molar)位于乳尖牙远中,共8颗,包括上颌第一乳磨牙、上颌第二乳磨牙、下颌第一乳磨牙和下颌第二乳磨牙。</p>
                    <p class="content">乳磨牙的共同特点是牙冠近远中径大于颊舌径和<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />颈径,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘明显聚缩,颊颈嵴近中侧突出,牙根分叉度大,很少有再次分根的变异现象。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)上颌第一乳磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌第一乳磨牙(maxillary first deciduous molar)牙冠似前磨牙,但牙根为3根,形似前磨牙和磨牙的混合体(图2-51)。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:形似梯形,近远中径大于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />颈径,近中缘长直,远中缘短突。颈部缩窄,颊颈嵴突出,尤以近中侧最明显。颊尖微突,偏近中。少数存在远中颊尖,但很小或不明显。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
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                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:较颊面小,舌尖较圆突,亦有少数存在远中舌尖,但很小或不明显。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:呈四边形,颊侧颈1/3处最突出,颈部厚,逐渐向<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面和牙根颈部缩窄,冠根分界明显。近、远中接触区均位于靠近中1/3的<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘下方。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0061-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-51&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌第一乳磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面:形态类似上颌前磨牙,颊<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴宽,舌<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴窄而圆突,颊、舌尖的三角嵴及发育沟等均不如上颌前磨牙清晰。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;与上颌磨牙相似,由近中颊根、远中颊根和腭根三根组成。牙根细长,根干较短,分叉部位接近牙颈部,根分叉度大,以保护其间的继替恒牙胚。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)上颌第二乳磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌第二乳磨牙(maxillary second deciduous molars)形态与上颌第一恒磨牙极相似,但体积稍小、<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />缘缩窄(图2-52)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0061-09.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-52&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧上颌第二乳磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:呈梯形,有两个颊尖,近中颊尖稍大于远中颊尖,两颊尖之间以颊沟分隔。根颈部缩窄,颈嵴突出,冠根分明。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:小于颊面,有两个舌尖,近中舌尖较大,远中舌尖较小。少数有第五牙尖,位于近中舌尖的舌侧。两舌尖之间以舌沟分隔,舌沟较长,末端不形成点隙。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:形似四边形,近中面比远中面大,颈部最宽,向<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘逐渐缩窄,根颈部明显缩窄。近、远中接触区均位于<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />缘中1/3处。</p>
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                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:近似斜四边形,颊舌径大于近远中径。四周边缘嵴均向<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央聚缩,牙尖、嵴、窝、沟等解剖特点与上颌第一恒磨牙相似,但不明显,副沟较多。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3根,细长,根干短,根分叉度大于上颌第一恒磨牙。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)下颌第一乳磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第一乳磨牙(mandibular first deciduous
                        molar)形态特异,是唯一一颗不同于任何恒牙的乳牙,其独特的解剖特征在于有3个面近似三角形(图2-53)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0062-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-53&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌第一乳磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)颊面:近似三角形或四边形,近中缘长直,远中缘特短而突,近似一个以近中缘为底的三角形。近中颊尖明显大于远中颊尖,约占颊面的2/3。两颊尖之间有颊沟分隔,末端不形成点隙。近中颊颈嵴特别突出,为其解剖特征之一。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:形似颊面,表面光滑圆突。近、远中缘长度相近,颈缘较直。近中舌尖特大而尖,远中舌尖短小而圆,两舌尖之间有舌沟通过。外形高点位于中1/3。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:近中面颊侧缘颈1/3处颈嵴特别突出,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />1/3明显缩窄,近中颊尖、舌尖相距很近,恰似一个直立的以颈缘为底的三角形。远中面近似四边形,较近中面小而圆突,远中颊尖、舌尖相距略远。近、远中接触区均位于<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />1/3的中部。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面:为不规则的四边形或三角形,颊<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴与舌<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />边缘嵴约等长,近中边缘嵴短,远中边缘嵴长,故<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面类似一个以远中边缘嵴为底的三角形。<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面有4个牙尖,近中颊尖、舌尖大于远中颊尖、舌尖。近中颊尖、舌尖相距较近,两牙尖的三角嵴相连,将<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面分成较小的近中窝和较大的远中窝。两窝间有中央沟相连。<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的沟、嵴等结构不清晰。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;双根,类似于下颌磨牙。近中根略长而粗直,远中根短而细,两根分叉度大。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(四)下颌第二乳磨牙</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第二乳磨牙(mandibular second deciduous molars)与下颌第一恒磨牙相似,但有其特殊的解剖特征(图2-54)。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0063-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-54&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;右侧下颌第二乳磨牙各面观示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.颊面;B.舌面;C.近中面;D.远中面;E.<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />面。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)颊面:形似梯形,<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />1/3处最宽,颈部明显缩窄,近、远中缘相近。可见3个等大的颊尖,分别是近中颊尖、远中颊尖和远中尖,由两条颊沟分隔开。颊颈嵴非常突出,与牙颈线弧度一致。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)舌面:略小于颊面,近、远中两个舌尖等大,两舌尖被舌沟分开。舌尖较颊尖高耸、尖锐。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)邻面:近似四边形,颊侧颈1/3与舌侧中1/3突出,颊缘明显向舌侧倾斜,并向<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面内聚。近、远中接触区均位于<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />缘稍下方。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面:形似长方形,近远中径大于颊舌径。颊侧三个颊尖等大,舌侧两个舌尖也等大。<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面窝、发育沟、三角嵴都不如恒牙明显,且副沟较多。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.牙根</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;双根,即近中根和远中根,扁平细长,根长约为冠长的2倍,根干短,根分叉角度大。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">五、乳牙应用解剖</h3>
                    <p class="content">
                        1.乳牙在口内存留的时间,短者5年,长者可达10余年。这个时期正是儿童全身及颌面部发育的重要阶段。故应重视儿童的口腔预防保健工作,对龋坏乳牙应及时治疗,不可轻易拔除。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        2.健康完整的乳牙列,能保证儿童咀嚼功能的良好发挥,以及促进颌骨的生长发育。儿童在行使咀嚼功能时,咀嚼力通过乳牙根传导至颌骨,可以刺激颌骨的生长发育,进一步促进儿童的健康成长。如果乳牙早失,颌骨缺乏有效的咀嚼刺激,而导致发育不足,将成为牙<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />畸形的病因之一。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        3.乳牙健康和位置正常,可引导恒牙正常萌出。若个别乳牙早失,其两侧邻牙向缺隙倾斜或移位,使缺牙间隙变小,其下方的恒牙因萌出空间不足,可导致错位萌出;若乳牙滞留,同样会造成恒牙的错位萌出,成为错<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />畸形的病因之一。</p>
                    <p class="content">4.乳前牙的牙根舌侧有恒前牙的牙胚,乳磨牙根分叉内有前磨牙牙胚。因此,在乳牙治疗时,应注意不要损伤恒牙牙胚。</p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第八节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙髓腔形态</h2>
                    <p class="content">牙髓腔(pulp
                        cavity),简称髓腔,是指位于牙体中部,形态与牙体外形基本相似,但体积显著缩小的腔隙。髓腔的周围除根尖孔外,其余均被坚硬的牙本质所包被,髓腔内充满牙髓。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、髓腔结构</h3>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)髓室</p>
                    <p class="content">髓室(pulp
                        chamber)(图2-55)为髓腔中较宽阔的部分,位于牙冠及牙根颈部,与牙冠外形类似。前牙的髓室与根管之间没有明显界限;后牙髓室呈立方形,由6个髓室壁构成,包括髓室顶(roof of
                        pulp chamber)、髓室底(floor of pulp chamber)和4个髓室侧壁(wall of pulp chamber),在髓室底上可见根管口(root canal
                        orifice),与根管的界限比较清楚。每颗牙内部只有一个髓室。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.髓室顶与髓室底</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;朝向前牙切嵴或后牙<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面的髓室壁称髓室顶,与髓室顶相对的髓室壁称髓室底,髓室顶与髓室底之间的距离称为髓室高度。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.髓室侧壁</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;与牙体轴面相对应的髓腔牙本质壁,分别称近中髓壁、远中髓壁、颊侧髓壁和舌侧髓壁。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">3.髓角</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓室向牙尖方向突起呈角状的部分为髓角(pulp
                        horn)。其形状与牙尖外形相似,位置与牙尖高度、年龄等因素有关,数目一般与牙尖数目相一致。牙尖高耸者,其髓角也高;牙尖低而圆钝者,其髓角也低;随着年龄增长,髓角由高变低,髓角至<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的距离也随之变大。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">4.根管口</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;位于髓室底,为髓室与根管的移行处,外形如漏斗状。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0064-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-55&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙髓腔示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript">A.后牙;B.前牙。</p>
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                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)根管系统</p>
                    <p class="content">根管系统(root canal system)是髓腔除髓室以外的管道部分,包括根管(root
                        canal)、管间吻合、根管侧支、根尖分歧、根尖分叉和副根管,它们共同组成了一个复杂的系统(图2-56)。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0065-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-56&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;根管系统示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.管间吻合;B.根管侧支;C.根尖分歧;D.根尖分叉;E.副根管。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.根管</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓腔朝向牙根的一端缩小成细管状,称为根管。每个牙根内都有根管,但根管的形状及数目常与牙根的形状及数目不一致。通常情况下,一个较圆的牙根内多有1个与其外形相似的根管,但一个较扁的牙根内,则可能有1个、2个或1~2个根管的混合形式、偶见有3个根管者。根管在牙根表面的开口称为根尖孔,亦称解剖性根尖孔,它是牙髓组织与牙周组织相联系的通道。根管起于牙颈部的根管口,止于根尖部的根尖孔。50%以上的根尖孔不在根尖顶端,平均偏离根尖顶约0.5mm,最大的可偏离达2mm。随着根尖区牙骨质的不断沉积,偏离值会不断增大。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">根据根管的形态,根管可分为以下四型(图2-57)。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)单管型:从髓室延伸至根尖孔为单一根管,多由1个根尖孔通向牙体外。此型分布最广,其中上颌中切牙、上颌尖牙、上颌第一磨牙的舌根和上颌第二磨牙的舌根及远中颊根属于纯单管型。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (2)双管型:从髓室延伸至根尖为2个分开的根管,由2个根尖孔或合并成1个根尖孔通向牙体外。该型的分布范围仅次于单管型,居第二位。除上述纯单管型外,其余各牙根均可出现双管型,但多见于上颌第一前磨牙、上颌第一磨牙的近中颊根和下颌第一磨牙的近中根。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0065-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-57&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;根管类型示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.单管型;B.双管型;C.单双管型;D.三管型。</p>
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                    <p class="content">
                        (3)单双管型:1个根管离开髓室,再分为2个根管(1-2型);或2个根管离开髓室,再合成1个根管(2-1型),亦可再分而复合,合而复分,形成复杂的根管形态,以1个或2个根尖孔通向牙体外。此型可见于上、下颌前磨牙,上颌第一、第二磨牙的近中颊根,下颌第一磨牙的近、远中根和下颌第二磨牙的近中根。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (4)三管型:1~3个根管离开髓室,形成3个根管,有3个根尖孔;或其中2个根管先合成1管,再以2个根管分别开口于根尖,或3个根管至根尖合成一孔。此型极少见,可视为变异型。罕见于上颌第一磨牙的近中颊根和下颌第一磨牙的近、远中根。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.管间吻合</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;又称管间侧支或管间交通支,多见于双管型,为发自相邻根管间的交通支,常为1~2支,呈水平、弧型或呈网状相连。管间侧支位于根中1/3者最多,根颈1/3者最少。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.根管侧支</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;为发自根管的细小分支,常与根管呈接近垂直角度,贯穿牙本质和牙骨质,通向牙周膜,开口处称为侧孔。根管侧支位于根尖1/3者最多,根颈1/3者最少。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.根尖分歧与根尖分叉</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;为根管在根尖分出的细小分支,此时若根管仍存在,则称根尖分歧(多见于前磨牙和磨牙);反之,若根管不复存在,则称根尖分叉。二者通向牙周膜的孔均称为侧孔。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">5.副根管</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;发自髓室底至根分叉的通道,多见于磨牙。副根管在牙根表面的开口称为副孔。</p>
                    <p class="content">上述根管系统中,只有根管是恒定存在的,其余部分变化较大,不同的牙可以有不同的形式,但尚未有一颗牙具有全部根管系统。因此,根管系统是对全口牙而言的。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        根管系统的存在,一方面通过根尖孔、侧孔和副孔,使牙髓与牙周组织的联系密切;另一方面,也成为牙髓病和牙周病互相传播的途径,使二者互为因果,相互影响。此外,根管侧支、根尖分歧、根尖分叉、副根管等解剖结构细小、分布又不规律,给临床根管治疗中彻底清除其内的感染源带来困难,从而影响根管治疗的效果。因此,深入了解并掌握根管系统的解剖形态,对指导口腔临床工作具有重要意义。
                    </p>
                    <div class="bodyPic"><img class="t80" src="../../assets/images/0030-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" /></div>
                    <p class="center"><span class="bold">技术精进守根尖,医者仁心护口腔</span></p>
                    <p class="quotation">
                        生理性根尖孔,是根管在接近根尖时的狭窄部位,位于牙本质牙骨质界处,通常距离解剖性根尖孔0.5~1.0mm。该部位亦称根尖基点或根尖止点,作为根管预备、根管充填的终止点。根管预备时,器械不会刺激损伤根尖孔周围的牙周膜,既可以避免引发患者根管预备后的肿胀、疼痛反应,也保护了该处牙周膜新生牙骨质的生理功能,持续新生的牙骨质可以封闭根尖孔而获得治愈效果。根管充填时,由于根尖基点较窄,可以加压充填,使根管充填材料能严密地封闭根尖孔,但需要避免超填。精确定位、谨慎预备、严密封闭根尖孔对临床根管治疗的效果及预后至关重要。
                    </p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、髓腔的变化及临床意义</h3>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)增龄性变化</p>
                    <p class="content">随着年龄的增长,髓腔形态一直在不断发生变化(图2-58)。青少年恒牙髓腔比老年人大,主要体现在髓室大、髓角高、髓室底低平、髓室高度大、根管粗、根尖孔亦大。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0067-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-58&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓腔增龄性变化示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript">A.青年;B.中年;C.老年。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">
                        髓腔内壁在一生中不断有继发性牙本质的缓慢沉积,因此,随年龄增长,髓腔体积逐渐缩小,髓角变低,髓室底变突,髓室高度变小,根管变细,根尖孔变得窄小,有的髓腔甚至出现部分或完全钙化阻塞。继发性牙本质在髓室的沉积方式因牙位而不同。对于上颌前牙,其主要沉积在髓室的舌侧壁,其次为髓室顶。对于磨牙,则主要沉积在髓室底,其次为髓室顶和侧壁。因此,老年人的髓室底常凸起,而年轻人多低平。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)病理变化</p>
                    <p class="content">一些外源性因素(如外伤、龋病、酸腐等)易导致牙本质暴露,促使在受损处相对应的髓腔壁上形成修复性牙本质,使髓腔局部形态改变而缩小。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)临床意义</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        髓腔形态是临床进行牙体、牙髓和牙周疾病等口腔治疗的重要参考依据,包括髓室的大小、位置,髓角的高低,髓室高度的大小,根管口的位置,根管的数目、类型、弯曲程度和方向,以及根管与牙周组织间的复杂关系等。高耸的髓角,在牙体预备、窝洞制备时增加了意外穿髓的风险;对于髓室高度小者,开髓时易造成髓室底穿;对于弯曲的根管,进行根管清理和扩大时,容易造成器械分离、根管侧穿等并发症;对于根尖孔或牙根尚未完全形成者,器械、药物或充填物容易穿出根尖孔,刺激根尖周组织从而引起根尖周炎。
                    </p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">三、恒牙髓腔形态及临床应用解剖</h3>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)前牙的髓腔形态及应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.前牙的髓腔形态</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;前牙的髓腔形态与相应的牙体外形相似,髓室与根管间界限不明显,根管多为单根管。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(1)上颌中切牙:髓腔较大,髓室与根管间界限不明显,单根管,根管较粗大,根尖孔多位于根尖顶(图2-59)。</p>
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                    <p class="content">
                        1)近远中剖面:整个髓腔约呈长三角形,髓室顶最宽,约位于牙冠中1/3处。髓室顶微凹,两侧略尖。年轻人的髓室顶常有3个圆突,指向切嵴,并随年龄增长而逐渐消失。髓腔由髓室顶向根尖方向逐渐缩小、变细。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">2)唇舌剖面:髓腔略呈梭形,平颈缘处最厚,由颈缘向切嵴方向缩小成尖形,自颈缘至根尖亦逐渐缩小、变细。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)颈部横剖面:根管呈圆三角形,根管与牙根外形基本相似,位于剖面中央略偏唇侧。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)上颌侧切牙:形态与上颌中切牙者相似,但较窄小。由于此牙形态变异较多,其髓腔形态也会随之发生相应的变化(图2-60)。</p>
                    <div class="image-row1">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t70" src="../../assets/images/0068-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-59&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌中切牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                            <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观;B.唇舌剖面观。</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t70" src="../../assets/images/0068-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-60&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌侧切牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                            <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观;B.唇舌剖面观。</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">
                        (3)下颌中切牙&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓腔体积最小,唇舌径大于近远中径,根管多为窄而扁的单根管,但约有4%会出现唇舌向双根管(图2-61)。</p>
                    <p class="content">1)近远中剖面:髓腔呈狭长三角形,髓室顶最宽,约位于牙冠中1/3处,从髓室顶向根尖方向逐渐变细。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)唇舌剖面:近颈缘处最厚,两端相对较小。髓室顶呈尖形,位置也接近牙冠中1/3处,整个髓腔在牙根颈2/3一段相对较大,向根尖逐渐缩小变细。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)颈部横剖面:呈椭圆形,唇舌径明显大于远近中径,位于剖面中央。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)下颌侧切牙:髓腔较下颌中切牙者稍宽,唇舌径大于近远中径,根管多为单根管,分唇舌向双根管者约占10%(图2-62)。</p>
                    <div class="image-row1">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t70" src="../../assets/images/0068-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-61&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;下颌中切牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                            <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观;B.唇舌剖面观。</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t70" src="../../assets/images/0068-04.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-62&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;下颌侧切牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                            <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观;B.唇舌剖面观。</p>
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                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <p class="content">(5)上颌尖牙:髓腔的唇舌径明显大于近远中径,单根管(图2-63)。</p>
                    <p class="content">1)近远中剖面:髓腔相对狭窄,两端均呈尖形,髓角大约位于牙冠中1/3处。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)唇舌剖面:呈梭形,髓室顶狭窄而尖锐,接近冠中1/3处,髓腔自髓角以下至牙根中部一段稍宽,而后向根尖又逐渐缩小变细。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)颈部横剖面:呈圆三角形,唇舌径明显大于近远中径,位于剖面中央。</p>
                    <p class="content">(6)下颌尖牙:与上颌尖牙者相似,但髓室和根管都较上颌尖牙者窄,髓角较圆,大多数为单根管,约有4%为双根管(图2-64)。</p>
                    <div class="image-row">
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t70" src="../../assets/images/0069-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-63&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌尖牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                            <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观;B.唇舌剖面观。</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t70" src="../../assets/images/0069-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-64&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;下颌尖牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                            <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观;B.唇舌剖面观。</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">1)近远中剖面:髓腔较窄,髓角较圆钝,大致位于牙冠中1/3处。髓腔自髓角以下至牙根中部一段稍宽。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)唇舌剖面:髓腔的唇舌径较大,最宽处位于牙冠颈部和牙根颈部1/3或1/2,而后朝根尖方向逐渐变细。髓角呈尖形,接近牙冠中1/3处。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)颈部横剖面:呈椭圆形,唇舌径较大,位于剖面中央。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.前牙髓腔应用解剖</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)上颌前牙髓腔的唇舌径在牙颈部最大,且髓壁较切端薄,开髓时适合从舌面窝中央朝牙颈方向钻入。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)上颌前牙位于口腔前部,为医生提供了开阔的操作视野。此外,上颌前牙多存在粗大而直的单根管,根管治疗时操作方便,治疗效果好。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)在上颌切牙活髓牙上预备针型嵌体的针道时,应注意避开髓角,以防对牙髓造成损伤。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (4)下颌前牙的双根管呈唇舌向分布,在正面拍摄的X线片上,双根管影像重叠难以分辨,为准确显示出双根管,应改变X线的投射角度。在进行根管治疗时,必须仔细检查根管口的数量,以免遗漏根管而影响疗效。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(5)下颌切牙根管细,根管壁薄(管壁厚约1.0mm),进行根管治疗时应防止根管侧穿或器械折断。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)前磨牙的髓腔形态及应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content">上颌前磨牙髓室位于牙冠颈部及根干内,呈立方形,颊舌径大于近远中径。髓室顶形凹,最凹处大致与颈缘平齐,其上有颊、舌两个髓角。牙根内含1~2个根管。</p>
                    <p class="content">下颌前磨牙髓室顶上也有颊、舌两个髓角,但髓室向下多与单根管相连通。</p>
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                    <span class="header-right">口腔解剖生理学</span>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
 
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.上颌第一前磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-65)</span></p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0070-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-65&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌第一前磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过颊尖顶);B.近远中剖面观(通过牙冠中部);C.颊舌剖面观;D.颊舌剖面观。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">(1)近远中剖面:形态与尖牙相似,但髓室和根管相对较窄。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (2)颊舌剖面:髓室顶上,颊、舌两个髓角分别向颊尖和舌尖方向突入。其中,颊侧髓角较高,接近牙冠中1/3处,舌侧髓角相对较低,接近牙冠颈1/3处(少数接近牙冠中1/3)。髓室底上有1~2个根管口,偶尔有3个根管口,分别与相应的根管连通。因该牙根管形态多样,可分为双管型、单双管型、单管型及三管型4种类型(图2-66)。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(3)颈部横剖面:呈椭圆形,颊舌径均大于近远中径。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0070-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-66&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌第一前磨牙的根管类型示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.单管型;B、C.双管型;D.单双管型;E.三管型。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.上颌第二前磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-67)</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;与上颌第一前磨牙的髓腔形态相似,但髓腔近远径相对较窄,颊舌径较大,颊、舌侧髓角位置相对较低,均位于牙冠颈1/3处。根管类型主要有:①单管型,约占48%;②双管型,约占11%;③单双管型,约占41%。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0070-03.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-67&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌第二前磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过颊尖顶);B.近远中剖面观(通过牙冠中部);C.颊舌剖面观。</p>
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        <div class="page-box" page="65">
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                    <div class="header-content">
                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">3.下颌第一前磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-68)</span></p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0071-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-68&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;下颌第一前磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过牙冠中部,从舌侧向颊侧观);B.近远中剖面观(通过牙冠中部,从颊侧向舌侧观);C.颊舌剖面观。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">(1)近远中剖面:形态与尖牙相似,但更为狭窄。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (2)颊舌剖面:髓室顶上有颊、舌两个髓角,颊侧髓角特别高而尖,接近牙冠中1/3处;而舌侧髓角相对短圆且不明显,位置靠近牙冠颈1/3处。髓腔通常在根尖1/3明显缩小成管,少数在根中1/3或根颈1/3缩小成管,三者约占83%;另外,约17%在根管中部或根尖1/3处形成双管型或单双管型。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(3)颈部横剖面:多呈椭圆形,颊舌径大于近远中径。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.下颌第二前磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-69)</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;与下颌第一前磨牙者相似,但也存在一些差异:其颊、舌侧髓角均明显,且颊侧髓角稍高于舌侧髓角,两者均位于牙冠颈1/3处。髓腔在根颈1/3处以下(即向根尖方向)明显缩小成管,也有在根中部或根尖1/3处缩小成管者,根管多为单根管。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0071-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-69&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;下颌第二前磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过颊尖顶);B.近远中剖面观(通过牙冠中部);C.颊舌剖面观。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">5.前磨牙髓腔应用解剖</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)上颌前磨牙的近远中径近<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面宽而近颈部较窄,开髓时应特别注意窝洞的形态和位置,警惕从近中面或远中面不慎穿孔。</p>
                    <p class="content">(2)上颌前磨牙颊侧髓角较高,备洞时应避免意外穿通颊侧髓角。</p>
                    <p class="content">(3)上颌前磨牙髓室底较深,开髓时切勿将暴露的髓角误认为是根管口。</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (4)下颌第一前磨牙牙冠向舌侧倾斜度大,故颊尖位于牙冠中部,且髓角又高,进行牙体预备时应防止穿髓;同时,在进行根管治疗时,器械应顺着牙体长轴方向进入,以免穿通根管壁。</p>
 
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                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(三)磨牙的髓腔形态及应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content">磨牙髓室大,呈立方形,髓室顶上有4~5个髓角分别突向相应的牙尖,髓室底可见2~4个根管口,与相应的根管相连通。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.上颌第一磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-70)</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓室较大,似矮长方体形,颊舌径最长,近远中径次之,髓室高度最短。其中,髓室高度很小,约2mm。髓室顶形凹,最凹处大致与颈缘平齐。髓室顶上有4个髓角,其中近颊髓角和近舌髓角较高,约位于牙冠中1/3,而远颊髓角和远舌髓角较低,接近牙冠颈1/3处。髓室底上可看到3~4个根管口,排列呈颊舌径长、近远中径短的四边形或三角形。近颊根管口与远颊根管口距离较近,而与舌根根管口相距稍远,远颊根管口则位于近颊根管口的远中略偏舌侧。各根管口的形态各异:近颊根管口较扁,远颊根管口略圆,舌根根管口呈圆形且较宽大。近中颊根表现为双管型或单双管型者约占63%,远中颊根表现为双管型者约占9%,而舌根多表现为单根管。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0072-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-70&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌第一磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过颊根);B.颊舌剖面观(通过近中颊根);C.牙颈部横剖面观(牙根方向);D.牙颈部横剖面观(牙冠方向)。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">
                        近颊根的根管口再分为颊、舌两个根管口时,这两个根管口相距约2mm。其中,近颊根的舌侧根管口又称为第四根管口,其形态为圆形或椭圆形,位于近颊根的颊侧根管口与舌根根管口的连线,或位于连线的近中舌侧。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.上颌第二磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-71)</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;与上颌第一磨牙的髓腔相似,但更为窄小。近颊根为双管型或单双管型者约占30%,而远颊根和舌根多为单根管。上颌第二磨牙多为3个根管,偶有2个根管者,即1个粗大的颊侧根管和1个舌侧根管。
                    </p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0072-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-71&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌第二磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过颊根);B.颊舌剖面观(通过近中颊根)。</p>
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
                    </div>
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                <div class="bodystyle">
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">3.上颌第三磨牙的髓腔形态</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;上颌第三磨牙是全口牙中形态变异最多的牙,其髓腔形态也依其外形而有相应变化,但有其特点,主要体现在髓室大、髓角较低和根管粗。大部分融合成1个根管,很少有4个根管。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">4.下颌第一磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-72)</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓室形似矮立方形,近远中径>颊舌径>髓室高度,髓室高度相对较小,约为1mm;髓室顶形凹,最凹处大致与颈缘平齐,其上通常有5个髓角,其中舌侧髓角高于颊侧髓角,前者接近牙冠的中1/3,后者则接近牙冠颈1/3或在颈缘附近。髓室底轮廓为近远中径大于颊舌径的四边形或五边形,其上有2~4个根管口。近中根约87%为双管型或单双管型,远中根约40%为双管型或单双管型。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">下颌第一磨牙通常有3~4个根管,即近中2个根管、远中1~2个根管,偶见有5~6个根管者。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0073-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-72&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;下颌第一磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过颊尖);B.颊舌剖面观(通过近中根);C.牙颈部横剖面观(牙根方向);D.牙颈部横剖面观(牙冠方向)。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">5.下颌第二磨牙的髓腔形态(图2-73)</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;与下颌第一磨牙的髓腔相似。其近中根为双管型或单双管型者共占64%,而远中根此类形态的比例则为18%。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">近远中根在颊侧融合的下颌第二磨牙,其根管亦在颊侧相连通,根管横断面呈C形称为C形根管(C-shaped root canal),这种情况约占31%。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0073-02.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-73&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;下颌第二磨牙的髓腔形态示意图(剖面观)</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.近远中剖面观(通过颊尖);B.颊舌剖面观(通过近中根)。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">6.下颌第三磨牙的髓腔形态</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;由于下颌第三磨牙形态变异较多,其髓室和根管也依其外形而变化。髓室和根管均较大,二个牙根者多为双根管,融合根者多为单根管。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">7.磨牙髓腔应用解剖</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)上颌磨牙的近颊髓角和近舌髓角均较高,备洞时应避免意外穿髓。</p>
 
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                    <p class="content">(2)上颌磨牙的颊侧两根管口相距较近,且近中颊侧根管较窄小,有时在此根内出现2个根管,因此根管治疗前最好拍摄X线片,了解根管形态和变异,操作时注意根管走行的方向。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">(3)上颌第一、第二磨牙进行嵌体修复制备针道时,应注意避开髓角,宜从<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面颊沟、舌沟、近中窝和远中窝等位置入手。</p>
                    <p class="content">(4)上颌第二磨牙有时颊侧两根会融合成一个粗大的根和根管,治疗时应特别注意。</p>
                    <p class="content">(5)下颌第一磨牙髓室顶和髓室底相距较近,开髓时应谨慎,以防穿通髓室底。</p>
                    <p class="content">(6)下颌第一、第二磨牙因舌侧髓角高于颊侧髓角,近中髓角高于远中髓角,牙体预备时应注意避开髓角的位置,以免损伤牙髓。</p>
                    <p class="content">(7)下颌第一磨牙远中舌侧根管细小且弯曲,给治疗带来困难,操作时应注意,以防器械折断、根管侧穿及根充欠填。</p>
                    <p class="content">(8)下颌第二磨牙近远中根有时会在颊侧融合,根管亦在颊侧连通,根管横断面呈“C”字形,开髓时不要将这一连通误认为是穿通的髓室底。</p>
                    <p class="content">(9)下颌磨牙牙冠向舌侧倾斜,而髓腔偏向颊侧,故开髓部位应选择在<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面偏向颊尖的位置。若选择在<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面中央尤其是偏向舌侧的位置开髓,常导致舌侧壁因薄弱而折断。</p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">四、乳牙髓腔形态及临床应用解剖</h3>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)乳牙的髓腔形态</p>
                    <p class="content">乳牙的髓腔形态虽与乳牙的外形相似,但从髓腔与牙体外形的大小比例来看,乳牙的髓腔较恒牙者大,主要表现为髓室大、髓壁薄、髓角高、根管粗、根管斜度较大,根尖孔亦大。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">1.乳前牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓室与相应的牙冠外形类似,根管多为单根管,偶见下颌乳切牙根管分为唇、舌向2个根管(图2-74)。
                    </p>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0074-04.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-74&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳前牙的髓腔形态示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.上颌乳中切牙;B.上颌乳侧切牙;C.上颌乳尖牙;D.下颌乳中切牙;E.下颌乳侧切牙;F.下颌乳尖牙。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content"><span
                            class="bold">2.乳磨牙</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;髓室较大,通常有3个根管。上颌乳磨牙有2个颊侧根管,1个舌侧根管;而下颌乳磨牙有2个近中根管和1个远中根管。下颌第二乳磨牙有时会出现4个根管的情况,具体分布为2个近中根管和2个远中根管(图2-75)。
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
                        <img class="cs" src="../../assets/images/yuan.png" alt="" />
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0075-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-75&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;乳磨牙的髓腔形态示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.上颌第一乳磨牙;B.上颌第二乳磨牙;C.下颌第一乳磨牙;D.下颌第二乳磨牙。</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)乳牙髓腔应用解剖</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        乳牙髓腔髓室大、髓壁薄、髓角高,因此在备洞时,应注意保护牙髓,避免发生穿髓。乳牙髓腔大的特点有利于牙髓治疗,通常能取得较好的疗效。乳牙在替牙前3~4年牙根即开始吸收,因此在处理接近替牙期的乳磨牙时需仔细辨别,不要将吸收穿透的髓室底误认为是根管口,以免损伤根周组织。
                    </p>
                    <h2 class="secondTitle">第九节&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖形态的生理意义</h2>
                    <p class="content">
                        牙体的形态结构与其生理功能是密切相关的,形态结构是功能活动的物质基础。天然牙的形态和结构不仅关系到咀嚼功能良好的发挥,还对咬合关系的稳定,咀嚼运动的协调完成,牙、牙周组织、咀嚼肌及颞下颌关节的健康等均有重要影响。
                    </p>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">一、牙冠形态的生理意义</h3>
                    <p class="content">每个牙冠均由五个面组成,包括四个轴面和一个<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面(后牙)或切端(前牙)。</p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)切端及<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面形态的生理意义</p>
                    <p class="content">切端及<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面形态的生理意义在于行使咀嚼功能和引导下颌运动,前牙切端的切嵴和尖牙的牙尖具有切割、穿透和撕裂食物的功能。后牙的<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面解剖结构复杂,有尖、窝、沟、嵴等结构,每一种解剖结构都承担各自特殊的生理功能。窝具有容纳食物的作用,边缘嵴则将食物局限在<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面的窝内,咀嚼时对<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />的牙尖与窝相对,沟与嵴相合,像杵臼一样来捣碎磨细食物。<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面上的沟是食物排溢的主要通道,食物经磨细后可顺着颊沟排向口腔前庭,顺着舌沟流向固有口腔。上前牙的舌面具有引导下颌前伸运动的作用,上颌磨牙的斜嵴有利于引导下颌的侧方运动。
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                    <p class="content">牙齿萌出的早期,切端及<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面的尖、窝、沟、嵴都是由曲线或曲面构成。咬合时,上、下颌牙呈尖窝相对、沟嵴相合、切嵴对刃等接触关系,这些接触都是点或线的接触。因儿童咀嚼力量小,这种点、线接触可以提高单位面积上的咀嚼压力,有利于咀嚼食物。另外,萌出早期的牙,其位置不一定都符合功能的需求,这种点、线接触有利于牙的移动,在牙尖及斜面的相互引导作用下,可将牙调整到相适应的位置,从而建立合适的咬合关系。
                    </p>
                    <p class="content">随着咀嚼运动的进行,切端及<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />面发生了功能性的磨耗,早期的点、线接触逐渐变成了面的接触。面的接触增加了咀嚼时上下牙的接触面积,同时咀嚼肌的力量随个体的发育在不断增强,从而有利于提高咀嚼效率。另外,牙经调整建立合适的咬合关系后,面的接触有利于上下颌关系的稳定。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)牙冠邻面形态的生理意义</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">1.牙冠邻面凸度的位置、形态及生理意义</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)邻面凸度的位置和形态:牙冠的邻面为凸面,相邻两牙借助邻面凸度(即外形高点)紧密相互接触,接触之处即为接触点或邻接点。在咀嚼运动中,每个牙都有轻微的生理性动度,这种生理性动度使接触点发生磨耗,早期的接触点逐渐磨耗成椭圆形小面,称为接触区(图2-76、图2-77)。前牙接触区位于切1/3,形态呈长椭圆形,切龈径大于唇舌径,近中面接触区靠近切角,远中面则距切角稍远。后牙接触区位于<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />1/3,形态呈扁椭圆形,<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />龈径小于颊舌径,前磨牙近、远中接触区及第一磨牙近中接触区均在<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />1/3偏颊侧,第一磨牙远中接触区及第二、第三磨牙的接触区多在<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />1/3的中1/3处。</p>
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                            <img class="openImgBox t90" src="../../assets/images/0076-07.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-76&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;接触区</p>
                        </div>
                        <div class="qrbodyPic">
                            <img class="openImgBox t70" src="../../assets/images/0076-08.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                            <p class="imgdescript">图2-77&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;接触区示意图</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">(2)邻面凸度的生理意义</p>
                    <p class="content">1)防止食物嵌塞:正常的邻面凸度使邻牙之间形成紧密的邻接关系,可以防止食物嵌塞,从而防止龈乳头受压萎缩及牙槽突吸收降低,还可以防止邻面龋的形成。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)维持牙弓的稳定:功能运动中,天然牙的近中移动趋势有利于邻牙之间保持紧密接触,使得邻牙之间互相支持、互相依靠,便于分散<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />力,有利于维持牙弓的完整稳定,对牙、牙周组织、咀嚼肌和颞下颌关节的健康均具有重要意义。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">2.楔状隙的概念及生理意义</span></p>
                    <p class="content">(1)概念:在两牙接触区的四周均有向外展开的呈“V”形的空隙,称为楔状隙或外展隙(图2-78)。楔状隙的命名根据空隙所处的位置而定,比如位于接触区切方、<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />方的空隙称为切楔状隙和<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />楔状隙,位于接触区唇、舌侧者分别称为唇楔状隙和舌楔状隙。而位于龈方的楔状隙又称为邻间隙,一般有龈乳头充斥其中。
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                        <p class="imgdescript-b">图2-78&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;楔状隙</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.唇、颊、舌楔状隙;B.切、<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                                alt="" />楔状隙及邻间隙</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">(2)楔状隙的生理意义</p>
                    <p class="content">1)作为食物的排溢通道:咀嚼过程中,部分食物可通过楔状隙排溢至口腔,从而避免食物滞留在<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />面或牙间。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)清洁牙面:食物在排溢过程中可摩擦牙面,使牙面保持清洁,防止龋病和龈炎的发生。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)稳定牙弓及<img class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />关系:咬合时因对<img
                            class="s-pic" src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png"
                            alt="" />牙的的牙尖位于楔状隙内,使上、下颌牙产生良好的锁结作用,从而有利于稳定牙弓及<img class="s-pic"
                            src="../../assets/images/0050_01.png" alt="" />关系。</p>
                    <p class="content">4)保护牙槽骨和邻面:邻间隙似一个以牙槽嵴为底,以两邻牙为边的三角形空隙,正常时被牙龈乳头充满,阻止了食物的堆积,可保护牙槽骨和邻面。</p>
                    <p class="content"><span class="bold">3.唇(颊)舌面凸度的位置及生理意义</span></p>
                    <p class="content">
                        (1)位置:一般来说,以牙冠唇(颊)舌面外形高点代表其凸度(图2-79),前牙唇面、舌面的凸度即外形高点均在颈1/3;后牙颊面的凸度亦在颈1/3处,而其舌面的凸度则在中1/3处。</p>
                    <div class="qrbodyPic">
                        <img class="openImgBox t50" src="../../assets/images/0077-07.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">图2-79&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;唇(颊)舌面凸度示意图</p>
                    </div>
                    <p class="content">(2)唇(颊)舌面凸度的生理意义</p>
                    <p class="content">1)咀嚼时,从颊沟、舌沟排溢的食物顺着正常的牙冠凸度滑至口腔,恰好从牙龈表面轻轻擦过,对牙龈起到生理性按摩作用,促进牙龈的血液循环,有利于牙龈组织的健康。</p>
                    <p class="content">2)正常的唇(颊)舌面凸度对牙颈部具有自治作用,可以在一定程度上防止龈炎及龋齿的发生。</p>
                    <p class="content">3)牙冠颈1/3的凸度,尚可扩展龈缘,使牙龈保持紧张有力。</p>
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                    <p class="content">若唇(颊)舌面凸度过小,甚至无凸度,排溢的食物会直接撞击在牙龈组织上,可能引起牙龈的创伤性萎缩。</p>
                    <p class="content">若唇(颊)舌面凸度过大,排溢的食物会直接滑至口腔,牙龈无法得到食物的生理性按摩作用,产生废用性萎缩(图2-80)。</p>
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                        <img class="openImgBox t80" src="../../assets/images/0078-01.jpg" alt="" active="true" />
                        <p class="imgdescript-l-b">图2-80&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙面凸度的影响示意图</p>
                        <p class="imgdescript-l">A.凸度正常;B.凸度过小;C.凸度过大。</p>
                    </div>
                    <h3 class="thirdTitle">二、牙根形态的生理意义</h3>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(一)牙根形态与其位置、受力大小及稳固性密切相关</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        切牙受力较小,一般多为单根。尖牙因位于牙弓转角处,是平衡牙弓前后力量的重要部位,也是维持牙弓形态的主要支柱,同时还支撑着双侧口角,因此,尖牙的牙根虽为单根,但粗壮强大。磨牙主要参与咀嚼运动,受力大而复杂,因此磨牙的根多分叉。根分叉越多,分叉度越大,其支持作用越强,牙也就越稳固。
                    </p>
                    <p class="poemtitle-l">(二)牙根的形态与牙所受咀嚼力的方向有关</p>
                    <p class="content">
                        咀嚼时,上颌前牙受到下颌前牙向前及向上的力,因此,上颌前牙牙根唇面宽于舌面,以抵抗向前的力;下颌前牙受向下向内的力,牙根的唇舌面宽度约相等,或舌面宽于唇面,用来抵抗向内的力。上颌磨牙舌尖为功能尖,所受的力最大,因此,舌根比颊根粗壮长大。下颌磨牙牙根扁宽,且近远中根面有纵行凹陷,横切面为“8”字形,牙槽骨嵌入此凹陷中,可增加磨牙的稳固性。
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                    <p class="center"><span class="bold">科普窝沟封闭知识,守护儿童口腔健康</span></p>
                    <p class="quotation">
                        窝沟封闭是一种不损伤牙体组织、无痛预防窝沟龋的方法。其原理是通过在牙齿的窝、沟、点隙处涂布一层流动性树脂,形成保护性屏障,覆盖在窝沟上,阻止致龋菌及酸性代谢产物对牙体的侵蚀,以有效预防窝沟龋。窝沟封闭的最佳时机为牙齿完全萌出且尚未龋坏时,通常乳磨牙3~4岁、第一恒磨牙6~7岁、第二恒磨牙11~13岁、双尖牙9~13岁。
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                        <span class="header-title">第二章&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;牙体解剖生理</span>
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                        根据第四次全国口腔健康流行病学调查结果,5岁儿童乳牙的龋患率超过70%,人均龋坏牙齿数超过4颗。为降低儿童龋患率,国家对适龄儿童有免费政策,可到定点机构免费进行窝沟封闭。我们应积极进行科普宣教,守护儿童口腔健康。
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